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Japanese Women. 



PRIVATELY PRINTED BY 

A. C. McClurg & Company, 
CHICAGO 

FOR 



The Japanese Woman's Commission 

FOR THE 

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 
CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. 

189^. 






i/L.: 



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PREFACE. 



In accordance with the invitation of the Board of Lady 
Managers of the World's Columbian Commission, for the 
grand scheme of exhibiting Woman's work in general, the 
Japanese Woman's Commission for this Exposition was 
organized under the co-operation of several noble ladies, 
and the works resulting from the hands of the Japanese 
Women have been exhibited. Taking advantage of this 
precious opportunity, the Commission desires and aims, in 
this work, to present to the world's public, however briefly, 
the true condition of the Japanese woman, ancient and 
modern. 

This work has been written by several authoresses, 
each chapter being undertaken by a different lady who is 
especially interested in and perfectly informed of the sub- 
ject assigned to her. 

The Japanese Woman's Commission 

FOR THE 

World's Columbian Exposition, 

chicago, illinois, u. s. a. 

1893. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. Introduction. 

Chapter II. Japanese Women in Politics. 

Chapter III. Japanese Women in Literature. 

Chapter IV. Japanese Women in Religion. 

f No. I, Japanese Women in Domestic Life. 
Chapter V. ^ 

1^ Nos. 2 and 3 OF the same. 

r No. I, Japanese Women in Industrial 

Chapter VI. \ Occupations. 

I 
l^ Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of the same. 

Chapter VII. Accomplishments of Japanese Women. 

Chapter VIII. Present or Meiji Period, Charities and 
Education. 



Japanese Women. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Japan, superficially, is now pretty well known to the 
world, but as regards her internal affairs she still remains 
quite a dark country to the Occident. Her women, for 
instance, are misunderstood to a great extent, for it is impos- 
sible that visitors who have hitherto written upon Japan 
could see them in their true light, without any acquaintance 
with their homes. We, therefore, publish this pamphlet to 
place them just as they are before the eyes of the world on 
this occasion of the World's Fair. It must be understood, 
however, that this small treatise cannot but leave many 
points untouched. 

How do the Japanese women compare with their Ameri- 
can or European sisters? This question it is our object to 
answer, not by means of argument or criticism, but by a 
series of facts, which will enable readers to judge for them- 
selves. 

Firstly, we shall speak of Japanese women in political 
affairs. Their interference in them was sometimes for good, 
and at other times for evil. Our politics were by no means 
free from certain well-known evils, produced by their in- 
terference, but we will pay more attention to the good results 
effected by their political acts. Women used to play an im- 
portant part on the political stage in ancient times. This is, 
indeed, one of the reasons why women were in general highly 
esteemed in old Japan. 

Secondly, of the contribution of women to literature, and 
their standing in the lettered community. 



Thirdly, of what women have done in religion, as patrons 
and votaries. 

Fourthly, of the domestic life of women, as daughters,, 
wives and mothers. 

Fifthly, of the industries of women. 

Sixthly, of the accomplishments of women, such as music,, 
tea-making {tencha), incense burning {ko), flower arranging 
{ikebana), painting, etc. 

Seventhly and lastly, of their present educational and 
benevolent labors. 

The first three chapters deal with historical facts and the 
rest with the present condition of things. 

Rich as this country is in ancient records, those which 
percain to .women are very scarce, and it is no light work to 
make up their history. This is no doubt due, on one hand, to 
the secret nature of womanly interference, and on the other, 
to the delicate modesty of our women. 

Before taking up the topics above mentioned let us trace 
the gradations through which Japanese women have come to 
be what they are, both as regards morality and social posi- 
tion. Little is, of course, known of our primitive mothers. It 
may, however, be proved almost beyond a doubt that women 
were highly esteemed in the days of old, until the introduc- 
tion of Chinese manners and institutions and of Buddhism 
made it fashional51e to depreciate them. But fashion could 
work only on the surface of things, and that only for a short 
space of time. 

As time went on, scholars and artists appeared among 
them and their influence was felt, especially at all social gath- 
erings. The court ladies were very influential and respected 
on account of their skill in poetry, which has been from time 
immemorial oae of the most cherished accomplishments of 
the Imperial court. In the tenth and eleventh centuries 
court ladies were such excellent poetesses that they had no 
equals in our history. They stood, indeed, on an equality 
with men in the estimation of society. 

From the Genji- Mottogatari, a novel by Murasaki Shikibu, 
who lived when female culture was so high, we can gain con- 
siderable insight into the women of those times. We there 
see them described something like the following: 



They were mistresses of feminine accomplishments, as 
music, Hterature, painting, chirography, incense burning, etc. 
In literature they paid by far the greatest attention to Japa- 
nese poems. It was held unwomanly to learn Chinese, and 
even those who had some knowledge of it tried assiduously to 
•conceal it. But it was not rare among gentlewomen to read 
Buddhist sutras in Chinese, from which was drawn their 
moral codes. They strictly observed the rules of etiquette. 
They paid much attention to the toilet. They practiced 
sewing, dyeing and weaving as well as cooking, from the high 
est woman to the humblest girl. In every family it was their 
duty to decorate the rooms, especially on ceremonial occa- 
sions. It was their part to educate the girls. They freely 
mingled in society and were, in consequence, bright and 
charming, not like their descendants, whose shyness and 
reserve are almost proverbial. However, they held nothing 
so bad as to put on airs and to let their tongnes glide too 
freely. They were severely warned against boasting of their 
learning. Murasaki Shikibu, herself, who was a profound 
scholar, is said to have looked like one ignorant of even the 
numerical figures. 

Chastity was held their prime virtue. So much was it 
respected that no woman, however beautiful and accomplishedj 
could find a husband, if her character was at all ques- 
tionable. 

Jealousy was considered the vilest of female vices. 
Murasaki Shikibu strongly writes against becoming its slave, 
while giving some very pointed remarks as to how wives 
should endeavor to please their husbands and make them love 
their homes. 

It was the duty of wives not only to make pleasant 
homes, but to aid their husbands in public concerns by means 
of advice. Thus their standing was very high and they were 
looked up to as model women for many succeeding genera- 
tions. We find a discipline laid down for women b}' Abutsuni, 
in her letter to her daughter, who was a court lad}- in the mid- 
dle of the thirteenth century, nearly equal to that embodied 
by Murasaki Shikibu in her novel. This letter states in full 
what a woman should do and should be. Here follow some 
•of the most important points of the letter: 



"A woman's education need not go beyond writing, drawing, musiCf 
incense burning, history, novels and poetry." 

"Avoid doing whatever tends to make others censure you, however 
highly you may regard it. A woman should try to charm with her heart 
and mind, not with her beauty or accomplishments." 

" Strive to be older than your age without being precocious, for pre- 
cocity is by no means amiable." 

" Hold It of little use to have many friends. A few select ones will 
suffice. Think twice before you take pleasure in light friendship. Love 
hearts, not outward appearances, natural gifts or accomplishments. In the 
exchange of friendly tokens, never be too warm, nor too cool, nor too push- 
ing, nor too reserved. Bear in mind you will be known by your friends." 

"I will tell you once for all that nothing is so rare as a true friend." 

"It is the happiest life to live at home under the care of parents. 
Court life, full as it is of pleasure, has its share of pains. It often taxes- 
moral courage to its very extremity. At court hold strictly to loyalty." 

"The spring flowers and autumn maples you may enjoy or not, but 
do not forget to contemplate the frost-bitten plants of winter. Nothing so- 
eloquently tells us how vain is this world. Weed out impure thoughts as 
they spring up in your mind." 

"Our life is but a short-lived dream. Study carefully the Buddhist 
doctrine, and let not worldly pains and troubles torment you." 

Rules were also for etiquette and the toilet, but these do 
not bear directly upon our subject. 

This was not the first time that Buddhism was made the 
instrument for eradicating bad thoughts and inordinate in- 
tentions. Buddhism had begun to control the mind of women 
as well as men, long before the time of Abutsuni. 

The fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries saw a 
series of revolutions, which resulted in the establishment of 
the feudal system. The interests of women had been 
utterly neglected during those 300 years, and when peace 
returned, with Tokugawa holding the reins of government,. 
Confucianism quickly grew in influence. The standard of 
morality was accordingly changed, but the influence of women, 
which had sunk during the stormy centuries, could not at once 
be revived, as, by the doctrine of Confucius, women were con- 
sidered of but little importance. 

In the seventeenth century there appeared many great 
Confucian scholars, of whom some directed their attention to 
female education. One of them was Nakamura Tekisai, who 
wrote the Himekaganii or 'ladies' mirror;' another, Fujii 
Ransai, who wrote the Fujiti Oshiyegusa or ' teachings for 



women;' another, Otakasaka Shizan, whose wife wrote the 
Kara-Nishiki or ' Chinese brocade;' another and the greatest, 
Kaibara Ekken, of whose teachings a lengthened account will 
presently follow. 

The teachings of these scholars were all based upon the 
doctrines of the great Chinese sage, and were far different 
from those contained in the Gefiji-Monogatari. Formerly 
women had had their minds filled and cultured by reading 
novels, histories and poems, mostly from the pen of their own 
sex, and their souls consoled by the teachings of Buddhist 
priests. But now that unlettered warriors took to the rearrange- 
ment of society and the rising scholars taught in opposition 
to Buddhism, it is no wonder that a rather too strict moral 
code was established for women. This code, with its ad- 
vantages and disadvantages, has since governed Japanese 
women. Its main point will, therefore, be mentioned here. 
For so doing, we will follow Kaibara Ekken's ' Female Edu- 
cation,' as we have no better way at our command. 

Ekken based his work on female education upon the 
books of Confucius, especially the Shogaku; or, "Elements of 
Learning," by Shnki; and the Jokai; or, "Exhortation to 
Women," by So Taiko. 

To give the chief points of his system: 

1. Girls will be educated the best at home by their parents. They 
need only to learn elementary lessons in writing, reading and arithmetic. 
They should be taught in pure old Japanese poems and of some Chinese 
classics, such as the opening chapters of the Kokyo and Kongo, So Taiko's 
Joka^ and others calculated to give them the best rules for obedience and 
chastity. 

2. They should be taught in the various domestic duties, such as 
weaving, sewing, washing and cooking. 

Ekken aimed at practical good and therefore did not 
attach much importance to music. 

His moral code was very comprehensive, and contained 
many rules applicable to men, but for girls only those are 
enumerated suitable for their future lives as wives and 
mothers. 

A woman should not follow her own thoughts. It is her 
duty simply to obey — -obey her parents while young; obey her 
husband when married; obey her children in old age. These 
are the Joshino Sanjiu; or, ^'The Three Obediences.'" 



3- A woman should guard against loquacity, should select her words 
with care, and utter none of bad meaning. 

4. A woman should take especial care of her deportment, watching 
lest it become manly or rude. 

5. A woman should be neat in her person and garments. 

6. A woman should not neglect domestic duties from dawn till night. 
The futoku, 'female virtue'' (3); the fugen, 'female words' (4); the fuyo, 
female appearance' (5 and 6), and the fuko, female works' (7). These are 
called " The Four Female Duties," none of which should be slighted by a 
woman. 

7. A married woman should consider her husband the only heaven 
to look up to, ahd serve him as if he- were her master. 

8. A wife should serve not only her husband but his parents, respect- 
ing them more than her own, and consulting their pleasure before she does 
anything out of her daily routine. She should not be irritated even though 
they treat her rather unkindly. This is for the sake of a peaceable home. 

9. A wife should pay due respect to her husband's brothers and sis- 
ters and other relatives; or she will lose not only their love, but the love of 
her parents. 

It was then customary for a woman, as it is to a great 
extent at present, to marry a husband chosen by her parents, 
not by herself. A woman was supposed to have had no home 
before marriage. In other words, to marr}/ was, on her part, 
to return home. Once married, she had no home to return 
to^ To add to her helplessness she had no right of calling 
anything her own, her body and mind not excepted. More- 
over, divorce, whether active or passive, was the height of 
disgrace for a wiiman. Thus everything was plaijned so that 
a wife should wholly depend upon her husband. 

A wife was obliged, as she is at present, to live in her 
husband's house with his parents, brothers and sisters, as it 
was held a duty for a grown son to support his aged parents 
and to live under the same roof with them. 

In order that she might the more easily adapt herself to 
her complex home, Ekken urges every woman to sacrifice her- 
self as much as possible in all her duties. Finally Ekken 
enumerates what he called the five moral diseases of women 
and strongty warned them against these infirmities'. They 
are: a. Disobedience. 

b. Anger and hate. 

c. Slander. 

d. Envy 

e. Ignorance. 



He says: "Most women have one or more of these 
diseases, thereby making themselves inferior to men. They 
ought to strive to get rid of them. 

" The most important of these five diseases is ignorance, 
it being in most cases the cause of others. 

"Women are inferior to men in general knowledge and 
wisdom. It rarely happens that they see at first sight, what 
is clear to men of common sense, at once and suffer accordingly. 
They often speak ill of others without knowing that it pro- 
duces results just contrary to their object, not only upon 
themselves but upon their husbands and children. Their 
blind love of their children often spoils the }^oung minds. 

"Therefore, I propose that women be educated so that 
they may not go astray from the path of moral purity." 

Ekken was right in saying that women are more disposed 
to the five diseases than men, and that they must be educated 
with a special view to root them out. But his methods of 
education were of much too oppressing a nature to be suitable 
for making gentlewomen in the full sense of the word in this 
civilized age. 

Ekken's system of education was in vogue during more 
than two hundred years of the Tokugawa's government, and 
it is much esteemed even at present by all educators of girls. 

A book called the " Oniia- Daigaku,'' an epitome of his 
system of education, was in use throughout the whole empire, 
as the copy-book for girl students in the feudal ages and in 
the first years of the Meiji period. 

At present women, in this empire are becoming more and 
more like their sisters in Europe and America. But as it is 
only twenty years or so, since foreign institutions and systems 
of education were introduced, the leading power in society is 
still in the hands of women educated under the old system. 
However, in a not far distant future ladies educated under 
the western systems will exert more and more influence. 



CHAPTER II. 

JAPANESE WOMEN IN POLITICS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

A precept has been inculcated in this country from time 
immemorial, and, let us hope, is destined to continue for all 
ages to come, that men should concern themselves with 
matters outside their homes, and women with domestic affairs; 
that, in short, men should lead and women follow. Forward- 
ness on the part of women has consequently been vigorously 
suppressed by our countrymen. But in many things success 
depends upon proper harmony and co-operation between the 
members of the opposite sexes. There is no reason then, 
that women should be excluded altogether from the public 
affairs of the country. Indeed, although they have not always 
taken a direct part in politics, women have rendered, in every 
age, indirect services of high value to the State, as their hus- 
bands' helpmates and comforters, and as their sons' guides 
and instructresses. Instances are not wanting of women 
scoring rare success in the fields of peaceful administration 
as well as of warfare. The precept above alluded to is meant 
as a check upon such women as may be betrayed by their 
shallow wits, into acts of audacity and presumption to the 
detriment of the national interests. There have been women 
who have conducted the government of the country with emi- 
nent success ; women who took command in the fields of battle 
in the place of their brave husbands; women who have sacri- 
ficed themselves for the sake of their country; and finally,, 
women who have consecrated their lives to works of charity 
and benevolence. But women being naturally shy and 
modest, the part their sex has played in the history of the 
country has not received that attention from historians to 
which they are fully entitled. It is our purpose in the follow- 

13 



ing pages to make brief mention of a few of the more famous 
women, who have played distinguished parts in the political 
annals of the country. 

Remote Antiquity. 

The precept as to the respective spheres of activity for 
men and women, to which reference has already been made, 
does not seem to have been vigorously applied in the remote 
ages of antiquity. The history of those times furnishes us 
with many instances of women assuming the reins of govern- 
ment. To begin with, Amaterasu Okami, otherwise called 
Hi-no Kami (Sun Goddess), daughter of Izanagi-no-Mikoto, 
is said to have been so wise and just that, as the ruler of 
Takama-ga Hara, she enjoyed the respect and admiration of 
all. She taught her people the arts of sericulture and weav- 
ing, and she also opened up the virgin plains of the Main 
Land of Japan. When she bequeathed her throne to her 
grandson, she gave him many valuable precepts as to the 
manner in which the gods should be worshiped, the relations 
bet.ween sovereign and subjects, and the relations between 
parents and children. It was she also who laid the founda- 
tion for the everlasting national polity of Japan. She is, in- 
deed, revered as the founder of the country, and to her was 
offered the most respectful homage by the sovereigns of suc- 
cessive ages. 1?he farnous Shrine Naigu at Yamada, Ise, is 
dedicated to her memory. 

The age in which she reigned being so remote, the knowl- 
edge we possess about her and her time' is comparatively 
meager, and any minute account of her is of course entirely out of 
question. She belongs to the so-called Divine Ages (Kamiyo) 
of Japanese history. Coming down to the so-called Human 
Ages, it is to be noticed that women have been on the Throne 
of Japan altogether ten times. This list does not include the 
celebrated Empress Jingo, who, though for many years she 
exercised all the powers of a sovereign, had not the regal title. 
But her great achievements as well as her extraordinary gifts 
of nature, amply entitled her to a brief notice in this place. 
She was a woman of strong masculine character, with a 
genius for command and administration. She conquered 
Corea and gave a powerful impetus to the progress of civiliza- 

14 



tion in Japan. Altogether she was an extraordinary woman. 
Her Corean invasion took place in 201 A. D. The southern 
portion of the peninsula comprising the countries of Kara and 
Mimana was at that time already in the possession of Japan. 
The country of Shiragi, which was adjacent to those just 
mentioned, did hot acknowledge the authority of Japan and 
was in the habit of invading the territory of Kara. The 
Empress Jingo, consequently, went over primarily to chastise 
and conquer Shiragi, but she was able to extend Japanese sway 
over several other countries. From that time the whole of 
the southern half of the peninsula became tributary states to 
Japan; the northern half was still under the authority of 
China. Chinese civilization, which had for some time taken 
root in the Corean States, now freely found its way to this 
country, where it, in course of time, has developed into a new 
plant of great beauty and value. The Empress Jingo also 
fought some battles with princes, who contested the Throne 
with her own son. Subduing all rebellious pretenders to the 
Throne, she put her son upon it, she herself administering the 
government as Regent of the realm. 

Empresses. 

In our country, it has been, and still is, the rule to select 
successors to the Throne from among the male members of 
the Imperial family, to the exclusion of female heirs. But 
this has not prevented, in unavoidable and exceptional cases, 
the occupation of the Throne by a member of the other sex. 
The first of the Empresses was Suiko. 

The Empress Suiko was the daughter of the Emperor 
Kimmei, the twenty-ninth ruler after the great founder of the 
dynasty. Her name was Nukatabe no Miko. She was at 
first consort of the Emperor Bitatsu, her half brother, but 
soon becoming an Empress Dowager, she continued to wield, 
together with the Minister Umako, the real powers of sover- 
eignty. After two Emperors were created and deposed in 
rapid succession, she ascended the Throne herself in 593 A. D. 
Umako became the Prime Minister, while her own nephew, 
the celebrated Shotoku Taishi, was appointed Heir Apparent. 
The latter was at the same time appointed the Regent of the 
realm, the Empress probably thinking it proper, in view of 

15 



want of precedence for placing the crown upon a woman's 
head, to abstain from a direct share in the government of the 
country. At all events, she was happy in her choice of the 
Regent, for under his wise and benevolent administration the 
country enjoyed a long and unbroken peace, the results of 
which were discernible in the increasing prosperity of the peo- 
ple and in the striding progress they made in politics, indus- 
try, literature and the arts. It was during this period that 
students and priests were first sent to China to study her 
civilization and introduce here whatever was good and excel- 
lent in it. This wise Crown Prince died earlier than the 
Empress. 

The next female sovereign was the Empress Kokyoku, 
who ascended the Throne in 642 A. D. She had been the 
consort of the Emperor Kimmei. She had borne a son to 
him, but the Prince was still too young to be crowned, and 
consequently she herself became the Empress. In adminis- 
tration she had the advantage of the wise counsel of her son, 
Nakano Oye, and her Prime Minister, Kamatari, the founder 
of the noble house of Fujiwara, and one of the greatest states- 
men that ever ruled Japan. By the advice of these remark- 
able men the Empress continued and brought nearer to 
completion the great work of political and social renovation, 
which had been begun under the reign of the Empress Suiko. 
She abdicated the Throne in favor of her younger brother, but 
upon his demise her son, Naka no Oye, still declining to accept 
the Crown, she again assumed the Imperial powers. For her 
second reign she is known by the title of Saimei Tenno. 
In the reign of the Empress Saimei, Corea was invaded 
by China and troops were dispatched to the peninsula 
to protect the State of Kudara, which then acknowledged 
Japan's authority, against the Chinese invaders. The Em- 
press, accompanied by Prince Naka no Oye, went as far as 
Kyushu, where, unfortunately, she was overtaken by the most 
dreadful enemy — death. 

The next female ruler was the Empress Jito, who 
ascended the Throne in A. D. 6go. A daughter of the Emperor 
Tenchi, she was the consort of the Emperor Temmu, after 
whose demijSe, and until she assumed the Imperial title, she 
actually exercised the Imperial functions for several years.^ 

16 



She soon left the Throne in favor of one of her grandsons, but 
her successor being under age, she still continued the virtual 
ruler of the Empire. Upon the death of the Emperor Mom- 
bu, as her successor has since been named, she once more 
accepted the Crown and was known as the Empress Gemmei. 
It was during the reign of this Empress that the Capital of 
the country was removed to Nara in 708 A. D. 

In 715 she was succeeded by her daughter, who is known 
in history as the Empress Gensho. She held the Crown for 
only nine years. 

The next female occupant of the Throne was the Empress 
Koken, a daughter of the Emperor Shomu. She assumed 
regal powers in 749 A. D. She abdicated the Crown in favor 
of the Crown Prince, who has since been given the posthum- 
ous name of the Emperor Junnin. A difference arising be- 
tween him and the ex-Empress, the latter deposed him and 
again assumed the Imperial title. For her second reign she 
is known by the name of the Empress Koya. The Empress 
was a woman of remarkable character and gave proofs of ex- 
traordinary aptitude for administration. But the latter years 
of her reign were disgraced by her excessive partiality to 
Buddhist priests, who filled every post of trust and importance 
at Court. There was even danger of the Crown being placed 
upon the head of a priest, a disgrace from which the country 
was happily saved by the courage and tact of that loyalist, 
Wakeno Kiyomaro. 

The unfortunate experience of her reign taught the 
country that it was undesirable to have a woman upon the 
Throne, and for about ten centuries following it was ex- 
clusively occupied by men. 

In 1630 the Throne was again graced by a woman, the 
Empress Meisho. In 1763 there was another Empress, called 
Gosakuramachi. These two Empresses held the Crown 
when the actual powers of government were in the hands of 
the Shogunate, and the}^ had, consequently, little scope for 
the exercise of their capacit}^ 

It will be seen from the above sketch that, with the ex- 
ception of the two last mentioned Empresses, all the rest 
reigned between the sixth and the eighth centuries. With 
the exception of the Empress Koken, they do not seem to 

17 



have personally attended to State affairs. It must not, how- 
ever, be inferred from this that they did not exercise any 
political influence. On the contrary, many of them wielded 
considerable political as well as social influence. Especially 
is this true of the Empresses Suiko, Kokyoku, Jito and Koken, 
during whose reigns the country made steady and remark- 
able progress in politics, religion, literature and the arts. 
Their proficiency in literature is amply proved by specimens 
of their poems preserved in classical collections. 

Imperial Consorts. 

Since the eighth century, there have been only two female 
sovereigns; but there have been not a few Imperial Consorts 
who are entitled to honorable mention in history. Especially 
was this the case during the so-called Age of Nara (710-793 
A. D.). It was during this period that women of culture and 
talent exercised vast influence in the refined society of the 
Capital. Of all the Imperial Consorts during this period none 
deserve our attention more than the Consort of the Emperor 
Shomu, who was called Komyo Kogo (Empress of Glory), 
on account of the brilliancy and beauty of her countenance. 
She was a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito, one of the re- 
markable statesmen of the age. She was married to the 
Emperor Shomu in her sixteenth year and while he was still 
Heir Apparent. • She was of a very charitable disposition, 
and a devoted believer in Buddhism. It was by her advice 
that the Emperor Shomu caused the construction of the 
Todaiji temple at Nara, of which the great bronze statue of 
Buddha is now the wonder and admiration of visitors from 
every clime of the world. What was, perhaps, even more re- 
markable for that age was the establishment by her of asylums 
and free hospitals for the poor. She was very skilled in 
penmanship, which is regarded in Japan almost in the light 
of a fine art, and was noted for proficiency in prose composi- 
tion. After the death of her Imperial spouse, she displayed' 
remarkable aptitude for administrative work as guardian for 
the Empress Koken. 

The Imperial Consort of the Emperor Saga, named 
Kachi Ko, was a daughter of Tachibana Kiyotomo, a court 
noble. She was of very calm and gentle temper, while her 



countenance is said to have been uncommonly pretty. Her 
virtues were such that, under the beneficial influence of her 
example, perfect harmon}^ and peace reigned among the 
numerous inmates of the Court. She was loved as well as 
respected by the Emperor. She, like the rest of Empresses, 
was a pious believer in Buddhism, and constructed a temple 
called Danrin-ji. She also interested herself in educational 
affairs and established a college for the education of the 
youths of the family of Tachibana. When her son, the Em- 
peror Ninmei, was seriously ill she grieved so much that it 
visibly injured her health. She finally became a nun and 
died at the age of 65. 

Among the numerous children of the Imperial Consort 
just mentioned, Princess Masa Ko was most remarkable for 
intelligence and beauty. She became the Empress of the 
Emperor Junna. She rendered valuable services to her hus- 
band by giving him wise counsels in matters of government. 
On one occasion she went out to see the farmers at work in 
the fields and encouraged them by giving them valuable gifts 
with her own hands. Upon the death of her husband she 
shaved her head and became a nun. She devoted the re- 
mainder of her years to various charitable works, among 
which may be mentioned the establishment of a free hospital 
for priests in the compounds of the Daikakuji, which was also 
erected by her. 

The Imperial Consort of the Emperor Murakami, named 
Yasuko, was a daughter of Fujiwara Morosuke, Minister of the 
Right. She was distinguished for the sincerity of her friend- 
ship. She is said to have been of inestimable assistance to 
her husband as his political adviser. Whatever advice she 
gave it was at once adopted by the Emperor. Unfortu- 
nately, she died quite young, lamented by men and women of 
every class. 

The Consort of the Emperor Yen-Yu (970-985 A. D.j,. 
was the daughter of Fujiwara no Kaneiye. When her son, 
the Emperor Ichijo, succeeded to the Throne, she administered 
the Government during his minority. Even after he attained 
manhood he generally followed the advice of his experienced 
and accomplished mother. She, like many of her predeces- 
sors, built several Buddhist temples, of which the Jitokuji 

19 



and the Gedatsuji may be mentioned. She died at the early 
age of 40. 

The Consort of the Emperor Ichijo (987-101 1 A. D.), 
named Aki ko, was a daughter of Fujiwara no Michinaga. She 
was not only uncommonly beautiful in person but well versed 
in Japanese and Chinese literatures. Among her maids of 
honor there were several talented ladies who have immor- 
talized their names as the pioneers of belles-lettres in Japan; 
the most distinguished among them being Murasaki-shikibu, 
the graceful authoress of the " Getiji Monogatariy Besides 
her literary accomplishments she was universally loved and 
respected for her singular freedom from the petty vices of 
temper to which her sex is peculiarly liable. In her old age 
she became a nun and devoted herself to the services of relig- 
ion. She built the temple of Tohoku-in. She lived to the 
venerable age of 87. 

There were other Imperial Consorts who have left their 
marks on the political history of the country, but want of 
space compels us to omit them from the list. The age in 
which the graceful Consort of the Emperor Ichijo lived, 
marked the most prosperous period of the Imperial Court in 
ancient times. Henceforth the powers of State rapidly drifted 
into the hands of the military class, and with the political 
power all the glory and accomplishments hitherto gathered 
together about the Court in Kyoto, utterly disappeared. 

The Age of Kamakura. 

It is, perhaps, well that we should describe more fully the 
transfer of power from the Court to the military class alluded 
to, at the end of the preceding chapter. To speak more ex- 
actly, the transfer of power was not from the Court, but from 
the House of Fujiwara to the military class. For two cen- 
turies, from the middle of the ninth to the middle of the 
eleventh, the sons of the Fujiwara House, as hereditary 
Ministers of the Crown, exercised absolute sway at Court. 
They made and unmade Emperors just as it suited their con- 
venience or their whims. All the marks of honor and official 
ambition were monopolized by the numerous members of the 
dominant family. Their long continued monopoly of power 
and their increasing luxury and extravagance had, on the one 



hand, the effect of sapping their vitality and converting them 
into a set of impotent and helpless dotards, and, on the other, 
finally brought upon their heads the dreadful vengeance of 
the class, which they had systematically oppressed for 200 
years, and which had been during that period gradually 
nursing its power to strike a death blow at its arrogant op- 
pressors. The first military family to rise to power as suc- 
cessor to the House of Fujiwara was the Taira or Heike, as it 
is more popularly called. The Heike in its turn was sup- 
planted by another military family, the Minamoto or Genji. 
With the victory of Yoritomo, the leader of the Genji family, 
over the Heike, and with the establishment of his Shogunate 
Government at Kamakura, dates the completion of the feudal 
system, which, with occasional modifications, remained in 
force for seven centuries, until the Restoration in 1868. This 
long period of time will be divided for the purposes of the 
present work into the Age of Kamakura, the Age of Ashikaga, 
and the Age of Tokugawa. 

The Age of Kamakura covers an interval of about 130 
years from the establishment of the Shogunate Government 
at Kamakura to the fall of the family at Hojo. Under the be- 
nign and economical administration of the Kamakura Shoguns 
and their ministers, the country enjoyed the benefits of peace 
and prosperity. Among the several remarkable women who 
appeared on the political stage during this age the foremost 
place must be given to Masa ko, the wife of Yoritomo. 

Taira No Masako. 

Taira no Masako was the eldest daughter of Hojo Toki- 
masa, a military officer of some importance belonging to the 
Heike and living in the Province of Izu. Her mother having 
died in her infancy, she was taken care of by a step-mother, 
who had also a daughter. There lived in the neighborhood 
of Masako's house a young prisoner of State, at large under the 
surveillance of her father. This was Yoritomo, whose father 
had been defeated in a futile attempt to bring about the down- 
fall of the Heike in 1158. Yoritomo was originally placed 
under the joint custody of Ito Sukechika and Hojo Tokimasa. 
There arose some trouble between Ito and Yoritomo, and the lat- 
ter was afterward taken care of principally by Hojo Tokimasa. 



Hearing that Tokimasa had daughters, Yoritomo was 
desirous of obtaining the hand of one. With this object in 
view, he asked information about each of them. He was told 
that the elder, who was by the former wife of Tokimasa, was 
21 years of age and very pretty, and that the younger, real 
■ daughter of the present wife was ig, and inferior to her sister 
in point of beauty. Being a wary young man, Yoritomo 
thought it wiser to apply for the hand of the younger daugh- 
ter, so as to please the wife of his custodian. He wrote a 
letter to the younger daughter presenting himself as a suitor, 
and entrusted its delivery to a man enjoying his confidence. 
This individual, thinking that, as the girl in question being 
otherwise than pretty, the match would not be a happy one, 
took it upon himself to destroy the letter, and, writing a new 
one in Yoritomo's name, secretly delivered it to the elder 
daughter. Masako was overjoyed with the proposal, for she 
said she had a drearii the previous night which indicated 
Yoritomo as her future husband. 

Masatoki happened at the time to be away on duty in the 
Capital. At the expiration of his term of service, he came 
home in the company of Taira no Kanetaka, who was Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of the Province. Tokimasa was naturally 
desirous of establishing himself in high favor with this dis- 
tinguished dignitary. He consequently promised to give him 
his eldest daughter in marriage. We may easily imagine his 
surprise and embarrassment when he was told on getting 
home that Masako had plighted her faith to Yoritomo. He 
was well aware that Yoritomo was no ordinary man, but that 
he was destined to leave his mark in history. He would 
therefore have been but too glad to give his daughter to him, 
had he not given his word of honor to Kanetaka. So, appear- 
ing not to know anything about what had passed between 
Masako and Yoritomo, the worthy father sent his daughter to 
Kanetaka. But on the night of the wedding, when rain was 
pouring down heavily, the bride, secretly escaping from the 
bridegroom's house, took refuge in a neighboring mountain, 
and managed somehow to acquaint Yoritomo with her hiding 
place. Yoritomo soon joined his faithful lover there, where 
they lived together for some time. The disappointed bride- 
groom instituted searches for his missing wife, but no trace of 



her could be discovered. Tokimasa, on the other hand, 
showed no concern about his daughter's mysterious disap- 
pearance. 

Meanwhile the growing impudence and brutal despotism 
of the Heike, or House of Taira, had driven Prince Mochihito 
to take desperate measures for the suppression of that family. 
To that end he issued summons to the remnants of the Genji, 
or the House of Minamoto. Yoritomo was, of course, one of 
the principal recipients of the summons. He, in concert 
with his father-in-law, raised his standard at Mount Ishibashi 
in the Province of Izu. The remarkable series of events, 
which finally ended in the establishment of Yoritomo as the 
actual ruler of the countr}^, are entirely beyond the scope of 
the present work. Suffice it to say, that the first of the Sho- 
guns owed his extraordinary success, in no small degree, to 
the valuable assistance and unfailing exhortation of his 
remarkable wife. 

Masako was, above all things, distinguished for the mas- 
culine character of her mind and heart; and it is recorded that 
even her strong-willed husband was in fear of her. At one 
time Yoritomo took his eldest son on a hunting excursion in 
the plains at the base of Fujisan, when the latter shot a deer. 
Overjoyed at the prowess shown by his son, Yoritomo at once 
despatched a special messenger to his wife to inform her of 
the joyful event. The messenger was astonished to find his 
mistress genuinely displeased with the fuss her husband made 
over such a trifling affair. "Was there anything," she asked, 
"worthy of particular applause in the son of the Shogun 
shooting a deer?" Upon the death of Yoritomo, Masako 
shaved her head and assumed the habit of a nun, but from 
that time she became the real center of power, for the suc- 
ceeding Shoguns were all men of inferior capacity. Yoriiye, 
for instance, paid no attention to administrative affairs, being 
addicted to debauchery of the most offensive type. At one 
time he was in imminent danger of losing his life by an insult 
offered to a mistress of one of his generals. In other respects, 
also, he made himself hateful to his officers, and had it not 
been for the assiduous admonitions and untiring address of 
his mother, his house would have been early subverted by one 
of his own generals. His dissipation and neglect of duties 

•23 



growing more and more intolerable, Masako, after consulting 
her father, Tokimasa, compelled him to resign the office of 
Shogun. Masako wanted to divide the country into two parts, 
and give the control of one portion to Ichiman, son of Yoriiye, 
and the other half to Sanetomo, his (Yoriiye's) j^ounger 
brother. Yoriiye's father-in-law, Hiki Yoshikazu, who had 
been indignant at his son-in-law's deposition, greatly objected 
to see one-half of the rightful heritage taken away from his 
grandson. He resolved, together with Yoriiye, to assassinate 
Masako and her father Tokimasa. But this conspiracy was 
discovered by Masako. Hiki Yoshikazu and his family, as 
well as Ichiman, were all beheaded; while Yoriiye was con- 
fined at the Shuzenji in Izu. The Shogunate title was given 
to Sanetomo. 

In 1218, Masako visited the temples at Kumano in the 
Province of Kishu. On her way back, she visited Kyoto, 
where the Emperor Gotoba conferred upon her the rank of 
the second grade of the third class. The Emperor expressed 
a wish to give an audience to her, but she declined it, saying 
that a rustic old woman was not fit to appear before such an 
august person. Her rank was soon after raised to the sec- 
ond class, and so she is very often known by the name of 
Ni-i no Ama (a nun of the' rank of the second class). 

Sanetomo was assassinated by Kugyo, a son of Yoriiye. 
With him expi?"ed all the descendants of Yoritomo, and the 
fortune of the house was at its lowest point. There were 
several revolts, but they were promptly put down by her res- 
olution and courage. There being no heir to the Shogunate 
office, she applied to the Empqror for permission to adopt one 
of the princes as heir; but this application having been re- 
fused, she again applied and received permission to place 
Yoritsune, a two-year-old child of a court noble, Fujiwara no 
Michiiye, in the office of Shogun. Masako, as before, exer- 
cised the real power of government as the guardian of the 
Shogun. 

In the period of Jokyu (1219-1221) an attempt was made 
by the Imperialist party at Kyoto to overturn the Shogunate 
government at Kamakura. Its failure was due to the prompt- 
itude and decision shown by the aged guardian of the Sho- 
gun. On the first report of unusual movements in Kyoto, 

24 



Masako called together the generals, who had fought under 
her deceased husband, and caused one of her officers, Ada- 
chi Kagemori, to address them in a manner appealing with 
peculiar force to their sense of honor and their personal grati- 
tude to their late master. They all vowed their unfailing at- 
tachment to the cause of the Shogunate. Masako, we read 
in history, took the leading part in the council of war held 
at her father's house on the eve of despatching troops to 
Kyoto. 

She was conspicuous for cool courage. At one time, 
after the death of the Regent Yoshitoki, and while his suc- 
cessor was still unsettled, his second wife organized a con- 
spiracy to have her son elected to the office, to the exclusion 
of Yasutoki, her stepson, who in the natural order of things 
ought to receive the appointment. Masako taking only a 
maid with her, called on Miura Yoshimura, one of the con- 
spirators, in the dead of night, and rebuked him for his con- 
duct. He confessed all, and repented of what he had done. 
The conspiracy was thus nipped in the bud. 

She died in 1225, at the age of 6q. 

The Age of Ashikaga. 

The best portion of the so-called Age of Kamakura was 
really the age of Hojo, because the Hojo, as hereditary 
Regents of the Shogun, exercised the real powers of the gov- 
ernment. There were eight generations of such Regents. 
They were able to maintain their power so long, first, because 
they showed unceasing concern for the true welfare of the 
people; and secondly, because they took care to excite as little 
envy and jealousy as possible by adhering to an unaffected 
and frugal style of living. There is an interesting story, well 
illustrating the secret of power possessed by the House of 
Hojo. Matsushita Zen-ni, at one time invited to her house 
her son, Tokiyori, who was then Regent in the Shogunate. 
Among other preparations for receiving her son, Matsushita 
Zen-ni mended the shoji (paper screen) by pasting over the 
ragged holes with pieces of paper, when her brother, Adachi 
Yasumori, happened to come to the house. He advised her to 
renew the paper entirely. She, however, quietly told her 
brother that her object in making patch-work repairs was to 

25 



illustrate before her sons the truth " That injuries mended 
before they become serious save much time and labor." 

The eighth Regent, Takatoki, unlike his predecessors, was 
arrogant in temper and extravagant in life. With him ended 
the Shogunate government at Kamakura. 

The next house of Shogun was called Ashikaga. During 
the period of transition between the new and old order 
of things, there were two women, who deserve an honorable 
place in these pages. One was the wife of that great loyalist, 
Kusunoki Masashige. Unfortunately, the knowledge we pos- 
sess of her is excessively scanty. But there can be no doubt 
that she was a woman of remarkable character. When her 
husband, Masashige, fell in battle, his antagonist, Ashikaga, 
generously sent his head to her — a favor rarely granted in 
those troublous times. Her son, Masatsura, a boy of ii, 
was so overwhelmed with sorrow that he attempted to com- 
mit suicide. His mother strongly rebuked him for his rash- 
ness and brought him up a worthy successor to his immortal 
father. 

The other lady was the mother of another loyalist, Uryu 
Tamotsu. He raised thelmperial standard in the Province 
of Echizen with Wakiya Yoshiharu as his chief. He was, 
however, beaten by his enemy and fell fighting hand to hand, 
surrounded by most of his fellow generals. When the 
disastrous news ifeached his castle, where his chief Wakiya 
was staying, it threw the inmates into a frenzy of lamentation. 
His mother alone was able to control her strong feelings. 
She quietly came forward to the presence of Wakiya and 
said "That she was glad that her son had fallen in war in 
company with such distinguished generals." She pointed to 
three of her sons still remaining alive and bade her chief 
Wakiya be of good cheer so long as her sons were still alive. 
Her heroic fortitude acted like a charm, and it is said that the 
drooping spirits of the party instantl}^ revived with redoubled 
energy. Instances of such heroism on the part of women 
were numerous in those warlike times. 

These ladies lived in the middle of the fourteenth century. 
After that time the House of the Ashikaga exercised the 
Shogunate authority for about a century. From the middle 
of the fifteenth century, the Ashikaga Shogunate began to lose 

25 



its power until it was finally supplanted by Oda Nobunaga, 
who was succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, one of the most 
remarkable men produced in Japan. 

His wife was an extraordinary woman. He, no doubt, in 
a measure, owed his great success in life to the assistance 
and inspiration he received from her. She was a daughter of 
Asano Matazayemon, a native of Owari. Mayeda Toshiiye, 
the founder of the noble family of Mayeda of Kaga, paid court 
to her, and her father strongly advised her to return his affec- 
tion, but she rejected his offer, and accepted that of Toki- 
chiro, an inferior officer in the household of Nobunaga. It is 
stated that, being extremely poor, they celebrated their nup- 
tial ceremony by sitting on a straw mat and using a broken 
earthenware vessel as a wine cup. After Tokichiro became 
the ruler of the country he was reminded by his wife of the 
occasion of their marriage whenever he showed a tendency 
to fall into an extravagant way of living. She was not only 
intelligent, but particularly remarkable for her virtuous 
character. Had she lived longer, it is believed, that the House 
of Toyotomi would not have fallen so soon, but in fact she 
survived her husband only a short time. 

To those illustrious names we must in justice add that of 
Yamanouchi Chiyo Ko, whose prudence, courage and wisdom 
are widely known to have been highly instrumental to her 
husband's unequaled promotion. 

Lady Yamanouchi Chiyo Ko. 

Lady Yamanouchi Chiyo Ko, wife of Yamanouchi Kazu- 
toyo, the Lord of Tosa, was the daughter of Wakamiya 
Tomooki, vassal of Lord Aral of Omi. When she was yet an 
infant her father died in an unknown battle leaving no heir 
to his estate. This sad bereavement caused her and her 
mother to find their home with the husband of one of her 
aunts, and when i8 she was married to Lord Yamanou- 
chi. Possessed of a keen wit, an elevated spirit, a lively 
fancy, and a strong sense of moral purity, she was equal to 
every household dutj', so that her husband could devote all his 
energies to political and military matters. Nor was this all. 
She gave such wise counsel and spirited assistance to her 
husband on many important occasions, that we doubt whether 

27 



he could have risen to that height of fame and fortune, had he 
not been so fortunate in his marriage. 

When she married, her husband was living in a very 
small way, and she had to put up with all the privations in- 
cident to poverty. This, however, weighed but little upon 
her brave heart. She played so well her part of home mana- 
ger that Kazutoyo thought of nothing but to find a worthy 
master, whom he fortunately found in Oda Nobunaga. 
While his master was at the Adzuchi castle, a jockey appeared 
with a superb charger. Many of Nobunaga's retainers wanted 
to buy it, but the price asked was too much for them to afford. 
Kazutoyo, too, desired to have it, but knowing its price too 
great for his embarrassed condition went home to his bride. 
Chiyo Ko observed Kazutoyo's unusual thoughtfulness and 
asked him the reason. He told her all about the charger, and 
said, "If I should appear before my new master upon such an 
animal, I cannot but gain his admiration. How painful that 
it is too expensive for me to buy." So saying, he shed a flood 
of tears and bitterly regretted that his poverty should make 
him lose so rare an opportunity of gaining his master's good 
graces. Hereupon Chiyo Ko askqd what the price of the 
horse was, and being told that it was ten rio, she surprised 
her husband thus: " If no more than that, you can have the 
animal. I have the money." She forthwith produced the 
sum from a case in which she used to keep her mirror. 
Kazutoyo was extremely astonished and said: "What an 
iron heart yours is not to have produced this gold before? 
Have we not often come to the verge of starvation?" "What 
you say," replied Chiyo Ko, "is simply reasonable. My 
mother placed this sum in my mirror case on the eve of my 
espousals, with strict injunction not to spend it, till a matter 
of great consequence on your part required it. Poverty have 
I borne with little pain, as it is no uncommon fate to be of 
straitened means in such a warlike age as this." Kazutoyo 
was then rejoiced beyond all description, and immediately 
made the horse his own and held it no less dear than his wife. 
A little while after it chanced that Nobunaga inspected his 
retainers' horses, when the charger in question caught the 
great general's eye. He demanded who its owner was. 
Hereupon Kazutoyo spoke about its purchase, excepting the 

28 



part his wife had had in it. Then the general lavished a 
series of eulogiums upon the luck}^ soldier, and said: "The 
jockey must have brought the horse here thinking no other 
clansmen would be able to buy it. And so, had it not been for 
you, an irrevocable disgrace must have fallen upon our house. 
That you, who have been so long out of employment, could 
afford to strike the bargain, shows you no ordinary man. You 
deserve ever so large an addition to your pay." This paved, 
as the reader knows, his way to all future elevation. 

After the unnatural death of Nobunaga, Kazutoyo went 
to serve the famous Hideyoshi. In 1600 Tokugawa Iye3'asu 
and Hidetadawent to the north to subdue Uyesugi Kagekatsu. 
Kazutoyo had gone with them, leaving his wife in Osaka. 
When Iye3'asu was at Oyama, in the Province of Shimotzuke 
and Kazutoj'O in Morokawa, not far from the future Shogun's 
camp, a faint rumor reached their ears that Ishida Kazushige, 
more popularly known as Ishida Mitsunari, a favorite of Hide- 
yoshi's, was going to take them by surprise from the rear, in 
order to slay lyeyasu and his son. This rumor turned out an 
actual event known in history as the battle of Sekigahara. 
While yet lyeyasu was ent-ertaining doubts as to the truth of 
the report, a messenger came to Kazutoyo from his wife. He 
brought a letter-box and a paper cap-string, which bore all 
the signs of its having been attached to the messenger's cap 
all the way down from Osaka. The future Lord of Tosa un- 
rolled the string, and who can imagine his astonishment, when 
he saw written therein all the complex intrigues of Mitsun- 
ari's, and the earnest advice to unite his interests to 
those of Tokugawa. Kazutoyo ran to Oyama, though 
it was long after dusk, told lyeyasu the contents of 
his wife's string-epistle, and gave him the letter-box 
unopened. They uncovered the box together and found in it 
a long letter, in Chiyo Ko's own handwriting, fully stating all 
they wanted to know about Osaka. This information, espe- 
cially the string-letter, did much to enable lyeyasu to win the 
battle of Sekigahara. It was, indeed, mainly in view of this 
valuable news that Kazutoyo was created the Lord of Tosa 
with an estate worth 230,000 kokii of rice per year, after 
lyeyasu came to rule the whole country. Had not Chiyoko 
resorted to the said device of making the more important 

29 



letter into a string to be worn on her messenger's cap, while 
putting the less important one in a letter-box, so that its con- 
ve3^ance seemed the only errand the bearer had, it would 
never have reached its destination. What a stretch of 
ingenuity! 

During the battle of Sekigahara the wives and children 
of all the warriors who had gone north under lyeyasu were 
to be confined as hostages in the Osaka castle. After this 
was decided upon, officers were first sent to the wife of Hos- 
okawa Tadaoki, the Lord of Ettchiu, to inform her that she 
and her children must present themselves at the castle to be 
therein detained as hostages. Then the spirited lady killed 
her two children, burned her house and finally slew herself. 
This news reached the ears of our heroine and she determined 
to follow Lady Hosokawa's brave example. Chiyo Ko told 
her desperate intention to an old man named Yamashiro who 
had been sent to her from Morokawa and her husband 
as household adviser, and requested him to behead her after 
she opened her abdomen like a brave soldier. Yamashiro 
prevailed upon her to delay her self-destruction, until he ascer- 
tained whether or not the tide of things had turned. The 
old man went about the town after the desired information, but 
he found the gates, within which he had hoped to pass, all 
shut, both upon him and any other visitor. He then made 
use of an arro-^ as a messenger to a neighbor who sent his 
reply by the same inanimate bearer, to the effect that the 
hostage question in the form first decided on was aban- 
doned on account of its having caused so appalling a disaster 
to Lady Hosokawa. Thus was Chiyo Ko disuaded from 
dying. 

Shortly afterward Chiyo Ko, as well as all the other noble 
wives whose husbands had gone to the north under lyeyasu, 
was ordered to send any one of her relatives to the castle as 
hostage. Thereupon she sent Niwo, a nephew of Kazutoyo, 
into the fortress together with two brave attendants. Niwo 
was returned to her safe and sound at the restoration of peace 
and order. 

Chiyo Ko bore a daughter in 1585. The child was named 
Yonehime, was loved extremely by both its parents until it 
grew to be 6 years of age, when its father's castle was shaken 

30 



to the ground by an earthquake and it was crushed to death 
under a falling beam. A few days after the catastrophe, 
while Chiyo Ko had yet her eyes bedewed with the tears of 
lamentation, one of her favorite maids brought her news that 
a foundling, supposed to be a warrior's son from its being 
possessed of a sword, had been found near one end of the 
castle town. She forthwith had the poor boy brought to her 
mansion, and bade her servants nurture him as her son, 
thinking that she had obtained a suitable person by asking 
a priest to pray for the repose of Yonehime's soul. Kazutoyo 
saw the child growing more and more lovable and often 
showed a desire to make him his heir. Seeing this, Chiyo 
Ko was grieved to her heart's very core, but feeling that a 
fruitful seed of misery was about to be sown, she sent him 
away to a great Buddhist patriarch, Nankwa Kokushi by 
name; telling him the mission she had destined him to fulfill, 
and giving him a purse heavy with gold. After the boy was 
thus in priests' orders, Kazutoyo adopted Tadayoshi, one of 
his nephews, as his son and successor. 

Strong-hearted and manly as she was, she did not 
the less value petty feminine industries like penmanship 
and sewing. While in the Nagahama castle she prepared a 
beautiful gown by stitching together small pieces of many 
varieties of cloths so skillfully that it found its way into the 
Imperial wardrobe through the admiring persuasion of her 
husband's dear friends and that of the Prime Minister of the 
Crown. 

This great woman must be esteemed as having possessed 
all the four female virtues of Confucius, of which we have 
given a brief account in the introductory chapter. After her 
husband's death she removed to a convent, which she had 
erected in Kyoto, and then led the pu»-e life of a nun, ded- 
icating herself wholly to Kazutoyo's and Yonehime's mem- 
ory until her peaceful death, which took place in 1617, when 
she was 61 years of age. The reason for which she went to 
Kyoto after Kazutoyo's death is twofold: First, to see the 
great teacher, Nankwa Kokushi, and to hear from him the 
great doctrines of Buddha; and secondly, to enjoy the society 
of the foundling she had so carefully educated and who had 
then become a great priest as Shonan Osho. 

31 



The Age of Tokugawa. 

After the battle of Sekigahara, l3^eyasu, the winner, made 
all the turbulent chiefs pay homage to him. He was a states- 
man with uncommonh^ developed common sense, and a rare 
gift of nature for command. He laid down a series of rules, 
widely known as the first Shogun's Instructions, to be strictly 
observed by all his successors, whose observance of them was 
proverbially strict. 

The House of Tokugawa ruled the country for 270 
5'ears, represented by fifteen Sboguns. At its height of 
power and splendor it seemed as if destined to rule the 
country forever. But true to the nature of all false things 
it was merely "An apple fine to look at, but rotten at the 
core." Toward the end of the eighteenth century it com- 
menced to show signs of decay. Commodore Perry and 
other national representatives soon appeared in the seas and 
made the national burden too heavy to be borne by the effem- 
inate progeny of the great lyeyasu. And the memorable 
year 1868 saw the powers of the State restored to the Crown, 
after over seven hundred years since they had been usurped 
from the Imperial hand. 

During the Tokugawa age women were generall}^ kept 
down, and none of their sex made their names very illustrious, 
as the whole country was kept in order as if by a myriad of 
little mechanfcal contrivances strictly in obedience to 
lyeyasu's careful instructions, and it was greatly and reason- 
ably feared that female influence, which has been marvelously 
powerful in all ages and places, might dash the whole nicely 
balanced structure into pieces. But nature was stronger, as 
she always is, than man, and we hear of some women who 
lived in this age, fully worth}' of brief mention here. 

Ocha no Tsubone. 

She was the daughter of lida Kiuzaemon, of the Takeda 
clan of Kai. She was married to Kano Magobei, of the Ima- 
gawa clan. It fell to her and Magobei's lot to administer to 
the comforts and conveniences of lyeyasu, when the latter 
was once detained in their master's castle as hostage. When 
afterward her husband died a soldier's death in the same 
battle in which his master, Imagawa Yoshimoto, fought and 

32 



died, she returned to Kai and lived with her brother, Inosuke. 
The Takeda clan was subjugated soon after her return to Kai; 
to wit, it met with the same fate as the one to which her hus- 
band had belonged. 

One day after she had become poverty stricken, she 
made bold to stop lyeyasu, who was then in Kai on some im- 
portant business, upon a road, and to tell him about her 
eventful life. lyeyasu was moved to tears, took her back to 
his castle and created her his chief maid. 

After that she went many a time to the Osaka castle, 
when peace negotiations were going on between the Toku- 
gawa and Toyotomi houses, and contributed not a little 
toward their satisfactory conclusion. 

When the daughter of the second Shogun, Hidetada, was 
married to the Emperor Go-Mizuwo, she was appointed to 
the highly honorable nuptial office of representing the bride's 
mother at Court, and so pleased the Emperor that he conferred 
upon her the rank of the second grade of the first class. It is 
extremely to be regretted that no more of her career, which, 
if known more, minutely would be highly interesting and in- 
structive, is handed down to us. 

Kasuga no Tsubone. 

This lady was a nurse to lyemitsu, the third of the 
Tokugawa line. She was a daughter of Saito Rizo, one of 
Akechi's retainers, and wife of Inaba Masashige, the Lord of 
Sado. She had three sons, respectively named Masakatsu, 
Masasada and Masatoshi. Her husband, a subject of Ukita 
Hideiye, did not seek a new master after the Osaka castle, and 
with it his master had fallen. He confined himself in his 
native town to spend his remaining days in honorable 
obscurity, when Takechiyo, afterward the third Shogun lye- 
mitsu, was born, and his wife was appointed his nurse. As 
years went by it was painfully felt b}^ her that Kunimatsu, the 
younger brother of her protege, was more beloved by their 
mother; that most people respected the younger more than 
the elder, and that therefore the former's influence was far 
more powerful than the latter's. She thought this no light 
matter. She visited lyeyasu, who was then in Shizuoka 
bearing the title of Ogosho or 'retired Shogun,' on her 

33 



way to the Imperial shrines in Ise, and told him all 
that weighed so heavily upon her loyal heart. The ex- 
Shogun was greatly astonished and soon after made a visit 
to the Edo castle. Then the reigning Shogun, who was 
noted for the sincerity of his filial piety, gave a grand feast to 
his father. In it lyeyasu gave Takechiyo the honor of sitting 
close to him, while ordering Kunimatsu to sit an apartment 
away, thus intimating to all present whom he meant for the 
third of his line. From this day upward Takechiyo's influence 
. became equal to that of the heir apparent to the Shogunate. 
It is needless to say how much Takechiyo owed this elevation 
to his nurse. 

Upon Takechiyo's taking the power of the Shogunate, 
Kasuga was entrusted with the management of all matters 
concerning the interior chambers of his palace. 

Once she went to Kyoto on duty and was then made the 
recipient of the great honor of being called into the Imperial 
presence. Kasuga, a name by which she is best known in 
history, was given her by the Emperor on that occasion. It 
means 'vernal day. The Empress gave her a wine cup with 
her own hand. 

Kasuga died a happy death in September, 1643, after a 
short illness. When the Shogun heard that she was danger- 
ously sick, he administered to her a medicine of his own prep- 
aration, and enjoined her to ask her last favor of him. The 
dying nurse expressed her thanks quite intelligibly, but said 
nothing more. Then lyemitsu said: " If you have nothing 
to ask on your part, let me tell you that I have something on 
mine. It is this: pardon your youngest son Masatoshi. I 
have not yet had the pleasure of seeing him, as he has been 
under your sentence of kando since I was a mere boy {kando 
or kanki was a custom of turning a disobedient son out of a 
family by way of punishment). I and he have sucked the 
same breast and I cannot but feel a sort of brotherly sympathy 
towards him. Will you, therefore, pardon him for my sake, if 
not for his?" " I abandoned him," replied Kasuga, who was 
about to breathe her last, " as I had seen in him a bad dis- 
position, which is sure to lead him away from the path of 
dutiful obedience to your highness, much to the disadvantage 
of the Shogunate government. Be kind enough not to make 

34 



me forget the faithful servant in the fond mother. Do not, 
please, pardon him even after my death for the repose of my 
departed soul." The moment she uttered the last word, she 
was no more. 

The House of Tokugawa had many another worthy maid, 
whom we should be only too glad to introduce to the reader, 
if our space was equal to our wishes. 

Toward the close of the Tokugawa period many worthy 
women appeared embracing the Emperor's cause. We can, 
however, find no more space here than to give a brief sketch 
of one of them. 

Muraoka Tsubone. 

She was the daughter of Tsuzaki Motonori, one of the 
domestics of Prince Daikakuji. She was born near Saga in 
1786, and died in August, 1873, at the venerable age of 88. 
When 8 years of age she entered the household of Prince 
Konoye as a maid. As she grew up, her talents and courage 
raised her to the rank of Rojo (literally rendered, old woman) 
or chief maid to her master, the Minister of the Left. The 
age she lived in, when the Shogunate government was at its 
lowest ebb of prosperity, was peculiarly fitted to satisfy her 
passion for loyal service. She served as a sort of go-between 
to several great Imperialists of her time, such as Saigo 
Takamori, the Priest Gessho, and her own master. Her part 
of the patriotic service was, in her age, simply indispensable, 
as it was next to impossible for one of the samurai class to get 
an interview with anyone of royal blood. She was always 
prepared to risk her life, if for the sake of the Emperor. She 
was once taken before the Shogun's judges on charge of trea- 
son, and upon trial sentenced to a three months' imprisonment. 
The part she played as a woman having free access to the 
close relatives of the Emperor, to high court officials, and to 
the Imperialists of the samiirai and heitiiin classes was inesti- 
mably valuable. 

After the Restoration she built a convent called Chokushi- 
an in Saga, where the great Saigo often visited her to enjoy 
repeating the tales about things past; and not seldom to shed 
joyful tears to the memory of the dangers they had ex- 
perienced. In 1872 the Emperor v/as pleased to fix upon her 

35 



a life pension of twenty koku of rice per year, and to raise her 
memory to the rank of the second grade of the fourth class in 
the last year but one. She generously gave to the poor all 
that she could save of the Imperial endowment. 

We shall make here no mention of the worthy members of 
our sex, who have appeared since the Revolution of 1868. In 
conformity to the valuable precept alluded to in the opening 
lines of this chapter, the womanly virtues have been, and are 
mostly destined not to shine before the public eye. So the 
reader can rest assured that those who have been mentioned 
above were women of the very first rank in merit: Other 
gems of less luster must have been buried in oblivion. 

In conclusion let us give the valuable words of Fujiwara 
no Yoshimoto, who lived some four hundred years ago: 

" Women must obey their parents when young, must 
obey their husbands in the best years of their lives, and must 
obey their children when aged. Theirs it is to be meek and 
harmonious with all they have to deal with. But since this 
country is named Wakoku, or the Country of Harmony, it may 
be her doom to be governed by the fair sex. Was not the 
great Tensho Taijin a woman? Of what sex was Jingo Kogo, 
who conquered Corea and made her acknowledge our country's 
authority over her? Was it not the wife of Yoritomo, who 
actually ruled the country for many a year after her illustrious 
husband's death*? Do we not hear of not a few Empresses 
holding the reins of government quite creditably in the days 
of old? May we not very likely be placed under a great Em- 
press in no distant future? " 



36 



CHAPTER III. 

JAPANESE WOriEN IN LITERATURE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In early Japan there were no letters or ideographs. It 
was in 284 A. D., i. e., nearly a thousand years after the 
foundation of the Empire by Jimmu Tenno when the Corean 
scholar, Wani, came over to this land of the Rising Sun and 
instructed her sons in the Chinese characters and literature, 
so that she then first heard of the existence of written lan- 
guage. It was, however, quite common among our unlet- 
tered ancestors to chant what was pleasing or surprising to 
their eyes or ears, in a form of metrical language called uta, 
the rhythm of whose lines were well calculated to please 
the ear and to help the memory. The uta or poem was, 
as it is now, of two varieties as regards its length — the 
longer uta, or Choka, and the shorter, or Tanka; the former 
consisting of an indefinite number of feet, of which some are 
of five and others of seven syllables, and the latter of thirty- 
one syllables, i. e., of two five-syllabled, and three seven- 
syllabled feet: Here are examples. 

A Longer Uta {Choka). 

Yasumishishi Waga Ohokimi no 

Ashita ni wa Torinadetamahi 

Yufube ni wa lyosetateteshi 

Mitoraji no Adzusa no yumi no 

Nagahazu no Otosu nari 

Asakari ni Imatatasurashi 

Mitoraji no Adzusa no yumi no 

Nagahazu no Otosu nari 

A Shorter Uta {Tanka). 

Tamakiharu Uchino ohnu ni 

Umanamete Asafumasuran 

Sonokusafukenu 

39 



At the present time the longer variety is very seldom 
composed, and the word uta has come to be nearly synony- 
mous with tanka. Besides the two varieties above men- 
tioned some modifications of them once used to be com- 
posed, which differed from their originals only in containing 
a few syllables more or less. They are only used now on 
particular occasions. 

Of the uta belonging to the period preceding the use 
of letters only a few remain, but quite a number exist of 
those composed between the introduction of Chinese ideo- 
graphs and the invention of Kmia. Some of those ancient 
poems are highly heroic, like unto a warrior on horseback 
about to discharge an arrow from a doubled bow ; some very 
soft and sweet, like unto beautiful maidens sitting under 
flower-laden boughs, dressed in robes of silk brocade; and 
others extremely sorrowful, like unto the sad looks of 
thought-worn widows on a dreary autumnal evening. They 
•are mostly remarkable for the choice of fine words, but lack 
the freedom of the Japanese language, as they were written 
in stubborn Chinese characters, with which the authors were 
not at all familiar. 

Japanese and Chinese Compositions. 

Our ancestors could express their ideas and sentiments 
in language as freely as we moderns can, but as they had onl)^ 
Chinese ideographs in which to write them, their literary 
compositions were not free or vigorous, as it was very difficult 
to represent sounds by Chinese characters, which are chiefly 
symbols for ideas. 

For many years after the introduction of Chinese, none 
but naturalized Chinese or Coreans, or their descendants, 
were secretaries and clerks in the different offices of the 
goverment, as it was then customary to prepare all public 
papers in Chinese. The intercourse between China and Japan 
became closer and closer as time advanced, and the conse- 
quent introduction of Chinese customs, manners, institutions, 
arts and Buddhism made it necessary for the Japanese to 
learn to read Chinese books. In time a good knowledge of 
Chinese literature and philosophy was an indispensable quali- 
fication for a Japanese gentleman. The result was, that 

40 



Japan produced many scholars who could write Chinese 
prose or even poetry, as well as if Chinese were their mother 
tongue. We may indeed say, that to Japan of a thousand 
years ago Chinese was what Latin was to many countries of 
Europe in old times. 

Even when all writings were prepared in Chinese, the 
proper nouns could only be represented by the sound of cer- 
tain ideographs. This borrowing of the sound was gradually 
extended to other parts of speech till poems and even prose 
compositions began to appear in the Japanese language in 
Chinese dress. The Chinese characters thus used were the 
origin of the Kana, of which we have two varieties, respec- 
tively called the Kata Kana and the hira-Kana. At first these 
Kana were unlimited in number, but in time forty-seven of 
them were selected and arranged in their present order. The 
Kana or iroha, so-called after the three initial letters, though 
born of ideographs, are phonetic letters and much like the 
European alphabets. 

As we have already seen, Chinese was at first the only writ- 
ten language for all purposes, and continued to be used for all 
important State papers for many years after its general disuse. 
The use of Kanaletters, at first limited to uta, was in time ex- 
tended to prose compositions, giving rise to the. Kana- burnt 
{Kana composition) or wabun (Japanese composition), of 
which many an old master-piece remains. Soon after the 
full growth of the Kana-bumi, it came into vogue to mix 
Chinese characters among the Kana. This led to the forma- 
tion of the Kanamajiri-bun, or Sinico-Japanese language, 
which is our present written language for all ordinary pur- 
poses, public as well as private. Pure Chinese is seldom 
written except by its professors and students. 

Influence of Scholarly Women in the Development 
of the Japanese Language. 

During the period of unmixed Chinese, no scholarly 
women were known, excepting the members of the Imperial 
family, a few ladies of high rank, and nuns. Among the 
former, the Empresses Koken and Komyo, and a nun named 
Chiujo-hime, a princess, who became a devout Buddhist, were 

41 



the most distinguished. Then there was a Daigaku (universi- 
ty) at Nara, and a Kokugaku (provincial school) in each 
province. The students, who attended them were sons of 
government officials, to be themselves employed b}' the 
government after graduation. Reading was the chief branch 
of study at these educational institutions, as it was one of the 
principal qualifications required of a government official. The 
weaker sex was permitted no access to these halls of learning. 

The other educational institutions of that age, were 
monasteries and nunneries, where young priests and nuns 
were instructed in Buddhist literature. There was no public 
place of education for ordinary women. The scholarship of 
the pious Empress Komyo was attained through her stud}^ of 
Chinese literature, not for its own sake, but to make herself 
able to read the Buddhist books. 

On the contrary uta was composed even in very remote 
ages by both sexes, and many poems from the pen of ladies 
are seen in the Many o- Collect io?i containing only those which 
were composed prior to the time of the Nara government. 

For some time after the Nara period the study of Chinese 
literature was yet in fashion, and history tells us that the 
Empress Kachi, consort of the Emperor Saga (who reigned 
8io to 823 A. D.), and their majesties' daughter, the Princess 
Uchi, distinguished themselves as Chinese scholars. But the 
generality of female scholars were composers of uta, in which 
they were not a whit inferior to their literary brothers. The 
two most distinguished poetesses of the age, under question, 
were : 

I. ONONOKOMACHI. 

The events of her life were not well known. It is, how- 
ever, certain that she lived in the reign of the Emperor 
Jimmei (834 to 850 A. D.) and was a very beautiful woman. 
Many of her poems are given in a book called " Kokiti Waka- 
shiu,'" a collection of ancient and modern poems. They are 
^also published in a separate volume. 

II. ISE NO IMIYASUDOKORO. 

She lived a little later than Ononokomachi. She was a 
daughter of Fujiwara Tsugukage, and bore a prince to the 
Emperor Uda (who reigned 888 to 897 A. D.) as his mistress. 

42 



A celebrity both in general literature and Japanese poetr3^ A 
■collection of her poems is a well-known book. 

It is from this period that the Sinico-Japanese language 
dates. It was at first written only by women, and those men 
who could not write pure Chinese. The first famous book 
written in it and now remaining is the Tosauikki of Ki no 
Tsurayuki, who compiled the Kokin Waka-shiu in 905, by 
order of the Emperor Daigo. In the preface to the Tosanikki, 
its author says: "I, a woman, venture to write what has 
heretofore been attempted by men only." It was made to 
appear the production of a woman, for no other reason, within 
■our knowledge, than that it was written in the Sinico-Japanese 
language. In it we find that the men wrote in the Chinese 
characters and the women in the Kaua. 

Soon after the appearance of the worthy Tosanikki, the 
Sinico-Japanese became the language of epistolary communi- 
cations and of light literature. Even men of learning began 
to use it in letter writing. 

The Monogatari or 'Tales,' so famous and important in 
Japanese literature, were all written in this mixed language. 
The Taketori Monogatari or a "Bamboo-cutter's Tale," con- 
sidered the oldest of its kind, seems to have been written 
some time before or after the Emperor Daigo's time. The 
■Utsubo, Yaniato and Ochikubo Monogatari, doubtless the pro- 
ductioQS of the tenth century, though their authoresses are 
unknown, still remain and are read by all students of Japanese 
literature. Many other works of the same nature appeared in 
the reign of the Emperor Daigo, of which nothing but the 
name now remains. 

In the reign of the Emperor Ichijo (987-1011) the use of 
the Sinico-Japanese was much cultivated \)y women, and a 
great many Monogatari, diaries, and light literature were 
published, of which not a few have lived to this day, and are 
considered as master-pieces, and as models for imitation. By 
far the most distinguished of these works is the Genji 
Monogatari by Murasaki Shikibu. 

MURASAKI SHIKIBU. 

Murasaki Shikibu, the daughter of Fujiwara Tanetoki 
and wife of Fujiwara Nobutaka, was a born genius. She was 

43 



unparalleled in all descriptions of feminine virtues. For a 
considerable length of time after her husband's death she 
confined herself in a small apartment, wholly dedicating her 
thoughts to his memory. Afterward she became an inmate of 
the Imperial Court as a maid of honor to the Empress Con- 
sort of the reigning Emperor. Her Majesty's father, Fuji- 
wara Michinaga, took pains to have none but virtuous and 
learned women in the Imperial chambers. Still Shikibu was 
a star amongst them. She did or said nothing calculated to 
show her in any way superior to an ordinary woman. She 
once explained the Hakushi Bunshiu (Hakurakuten's Prose 
Works), a difficult Chinese book, in the presence of the Em- 
press Ichijo, by her Majesty's special order, a fact that puts 
it beyond all doubt that she was a learned lady. She was 
well read not only in Japanese and ordinary Chinese litera- 
tures, but also in Buddhist sutras, as we may see in several 
chapters of her undying work, the Genji Monogatari. From 
her childhood she displayed uncommon talents and a decided 
inclination for learning. While yet very young she sat in 
her elder brother Korenori's study, listening to his studious 
reading and committing all he read aloud to memory. 
This is said to have often called forth the pleasant regret of 
her father: "Oh! that she were a man!" There are reasons 
to suppose that she was an excellent musician. It is related 
in her own ifikki or diary that she spent many days after 
her consort's death in reading his writings and playing on her 
favorite musical instrument. 

The Emperor Ichijo one day read her immortal work 
and observed to his chamberlains that the authoress must 
have perused the Nihonki, or "Japanese Chronicles," a cir- 
cumstance that earned for her the learned surname of the 
" Maid of the Nihonki^ In her time there were many worthy 
literary ladies, but she and Seishonagon, were the cynosures 
among them all. She had two daughters, who served the 
Emperors Go-Ichijo and Go-Reizen as nurses, proving them- 
selves quite worthy of their mother. The best known of 
Shikibu's works are the Genji Monogaiari, the Murasaki 
Shikibu Nikki, and the Murasaki Shikibu Kashiu, all of which 
are even now widely read. The second of these works, origi- 
nally quite a large volume but now reduced to a mere pam- 

44 



phlet by the theft of time, is a narration of her court life in 
the form of nikki or a diary. Its language is not half so ele- 
gant as that of the Monogatari, but we meet with many 
passages in it that show the strength and vigor of the pen of 
the great authoress. 

Famous Works and Their Authoresses. 

A great many old nionagatari, niJzki, uta, etc., are handed 
down to us. A few of them may be mentioned : 

I. THE "KAGERO NO NIKKI." 

This is a diary written by the wife of Fujiwara Kane- 
mune, who was premier in the first part of the Emperor 
Ichijo's reign. It is mainly a history of her conjugal and 
parental affections. The authoress does not give her real 
name, but calls herself the Mother of Michitsuna, so much does 
the book relate of her son. 

II. THE " IDZUMI SHIKIBU NIKKI." 

Idzumi Shikibu, a contemporary of Michitsuna's mother, 
was the daughter of Oye Masamune. She first married 
Tachibana Michisada, the Lord of Idzumi, who died shortly 
after marriage. She then entered the Imperial palace to 
serve the Empress Akiko. She was afterward married to 
Fujiwara Yasumasa, the Lord of Tango. She stood in the 
foremost rank among the authoresses and poetesses of her 
time. Her best known work, the Idzumi Shikibu Nikki, re- 
lates how the Prince Atsumichi, the son of the Emperor 
Reizen, sought her love. 

III. THE " SAGOROMO NIKKI." 

This IS a production of Daini Sammi Kata-ko, one of 
the two daughters of the justly famous Murasaki Shikibu. 
It is much like the immortal work of her mother in diction 
and in general design. 

IV. THE " SARASHINA NIKKI." 

A diary by the daughter of Uchiuben Sagawara Taka. 
The authoress married Tachibana Toshimichi. She was an 
excellent poetess and prose writer. Before her marriage 
she served the Empress Suke Ko, the daughter of the Em- 
peror Go-Shujaku, who reigned 1027 to 1045. 

45 



V. THE "SANUKI TENJI NIKKI. 

A diary by Sanuki, the mistress of the Emperor Hori- 
kawa (1087 to 1107). It details the agonies and death of her 
Imperial master, and the Emperor Toba's succession to the 
throne. 

Collections of poems written by the more famous of the 
old poetesses will be mentioned below: 

VI. THE " MURASAKI SHIKIBU KASHIU; OR, A COLLECTION OF" 
MURASAKI SHIKIBU'S POEMS." 

VII. THE " SEISHONAGON KASHIU AND MAKURA NO SOSHI." 

Seishonagon, the daughter of Higo no Kami Kiyowara 
no Motosuke, served the Empress Sadako, the Consort of the 
Emperor Ichijo, and distinguished herself among her col- 
leagues by the sprightliness of her disposition, the brillancy 
of her talents, and the profundity of her learning. The Em- 
press Sadako was the daughter of Chiu Kwampaku Michitaka, 
and had been married before her Imperial husband ascended 
the Throne. It is related in her Makttra no Soshi that the 
Empress was an excellent poetess and scholar. Seishonagon 
was highly beloved of Her Majesty. It is said that the Em- 
press often wished to see this poetess raised to the highest 
rank of Court service. But before this was carried into effect 
the Empress'»influence in the Court had declined, and what 
was more, she died, surviving her faded glory only a short 
space of time. This sad event frustrated all hopes of pro- 
motion for the unfortunate favorite. Many a record says that, 
soon after her patron's death, Seishonagon retired into a 
house where her deceased father had lived, and there lived in 
great obscurity, dying at a great age. Others say that it was 
as a nun in a holy establishment named the Seigwanji that she 
passed her subsequent life, praying for the repose of her 
Imperial mistress' soul. Which is the truth it is more than 
we can ascertain. 

Akiko, the new Empress of Ichijo, was no less fond of 
learned maids of honor than her predecessor, and therefore 
Seishonagon's erudition., which all her contemporaries frankly 
declared far above their own, might have found it an easy 
passport to the- Court, if she had so wished.. But her high 

46. 



spirit would not be satisfied with less than the greatest favors 
of her mistress, which she, the recipient of those of the former 
Empress, could not hope to secure. A passage in the Makura 
no Soshi says: "If it is possible to secure the first rank, be 
willing to serve; if not, be content with the second or third 
place." 

Her master-piece, the Makura no Soshi, was doubtless 
commenced by her while yet at Court. An old record tells us 
that she afterward continued and completed it in the pleasur- 
able recollection of her mistress' unparalleled grandeur and 
her own better days. 

VIII. THE "IDZUMI SHIKIBU KASHIU. " 
IX. THE "AKAZOME EjMON KASHIU." 

Emon was the daughter of Oye Masahira and wife of 
Akazome Tokimochi. She displayed rare talents and a sin- 
cere love of knowledge while 'yet in infantile years. Her 
husband, born of a learned family of long standing, was him- 
self an object of universal praise as a gifted scholar. Some 
time after their union Emon found her husband unusually 
thoughtful upon his return home from official duty. Inquir- 
ing the cause, he thus replied: " His Grace Shijo Kuito, 
wishes to resign, for what cause I know not, and has had his 
letter of resignation composed by Ki no Tokina and Oye 
Mochikoto. The letters they prepared were not quite to his 
satisfaction, and he has asked me to-day to prepare another 
for him. If they, who are both scholars of established repu- 
tation could not satisfy him, how can I? You see the cause 
of my thoughtfulness." Upon this, Emon thought a little 
while and said: "Those gentlemen were vain-glorious. 
They dwelt on the greatness of their families and the com- 
parative obscurity of their present position. Your writing 
will be received with an eulogium." It occurred just as she 
had said. How keen was her insight into men and things! 
This couple had a son and a daughter who were distinguished 
for great learning and brilliant talents. 

X. THE " UMA NAIJI SHIU." 

The authoress of this collection of uta was the daughter 
of Samano Kami Tokiaki. She was a favorite of the Em- 

47 



peror Ichijo, a contemporary of Akazome Emon and 
Idzumi Shikibu, and she was quite their equals in poetry. 

XI. THE "TSUNENOBU HAHA SHIU. " 

The mother of Dainagon Tsunenobu, the authoress of 
this collection, was the wife of Junii Gon-Chiunagon Minam- 
oto no Michikata. She loved knowledge very much. In 
training her son, Tsunenobu, she thought that much of his 
future might depend on the environs of his residence, and 
accordingly had a house erected close to the Nishi no Doin, 
where a number of learned professors then lived. Tsunenobu 
was quite a musician even while a mere boy, doubtless owing 
to the instructions of his mother, whose musical skill was 
almost divine. It is related in this book as well as elsewhere 
that when she once accompanied her father to the Province of 
Mimasaka, she found a crowd of people assembled in a temple 
playing a sort of mystery called singaku in order to so please 
the goddess that she would call down the rain from the sky, 
and that she, a girl of only 12 or 13, immediately 
thrust herself among the multitude and played on a biwa or 
lute, when the heavens suddenly darkened and down poured 
a shower, gratifying the people and refreshing the fields. 

XII. THE "DEWA NO BEN SHIU." 

The authoress, the daughter of Fujiwara Hidenobu, the 
Lord of Dewa, was a Court lady in the reign of the Emper- 
or Ichijo. 

XIII. THE "ISE NO OSUKE SHIU." 

This poetess, the daughter of Sukechika, the head priest 
of the Ise Temple, was a contemporary and colleague of 
Dewa no Ben. 

XIV. THE "KO-OKIMI SHIU." 

Another maid of honor at the Emperor Ichijo's Court. 
She was the daughter of the Prince Shigeaki. 

XV. THE "SAGAMI SHIU." 

The daughter of Minamoto no Yorimitsu, and wife of 
Kinsuke, the Lord of Sagami. The Emperor Juntoku once 
said that the poetesses Akazome Emon, Murasaki Shikibu 



and Sagami, were fully worthy to be classed with the ancient 
bards. This shows what a skillful poetess she was. 

XVI. THE "KAMO NO YASUNORI JO SHIU. " 

This is the collection of the poems by the second 
daughter i^Jd), of Kamo no Yasunori, the famous astrono- 
mer. The authoress enjoyed an enviable reputation for the 
brilliancy of her talents. 

XVII. THE "BEN NO NIUBO SHIU." 

The authoress, a daughter of Murasaki Shikibu, was 
nurse (niubd) to the Emperor Reizen (who reigned 1046 to 
1068) when his majesty was an infant. 

XVIII. THE "YUSHI NAISHINNO KE KII SHIU." 

Daughter of Sammi Taira no Tsunekata, and the 
younger sister of Shigetsune, the Lord of Kii. She called 
herself Kii, after the name of her brother's estate, and 
Yushi Naishinno Ke, for she served in the household {_Ke), 
of the Princess {naishinno) Yushi, the daughter of the Emperor 
Shujaku, the son of the Emperor Go-Reizen. 

XIX. THE "KO-JIJIU SHIU." 

Daughter of Mitsukiyo, a pensioner of the Iwashimidzu. 
Her mother, named Ko-Daishin, was an excellent poetess. 
Ko-Jijiu served the retired Emperor and Empress in the 
reign of the Emperor Takakura (ii6g to 1180). She was 
surnamed Matsuyoi no Jijiu, because of her having composed 
a happy poem on a niatsii- Voi, or the fourteenth of a lunar 
month (literally, waiting evening). 

XX. THE "YASUSUKE NO HAHA SHIU." 

The authoress was the wife of Minamoto no Nobuyoshi, 
the grandson of the Emperor Kwazan, and mother of the 
Prince Yasusuke. Her son was adopted by the Prince 
Kiyohito, another of his grandfathers. He afterward suc- 
ceeded to his father's office, the Directorship of Divine 
Rites, which situation was bestowed on him as inheritable. 

XXI. THE " NIJO DAIWO DAIKOGU DAINI SHIU." 

The daughter of Dazai Daini Takashina Shigeaki, this 
authoress served the Princess Reishi, the lady honored as- 

49 



mother of the Emperor Toba (who reigned 1108 to 11 23). 
Her mistress lived in the Nijo palace, and after the birth of 
her daughter was crowned and venerated as Daiwo Daikogu 
(Her Majesty the Empress Dowager); hence the name of the 
authoress. 

XXII. THE " JIKENMONIN HORIKAWA SHIU." 

This poetess was the daughter of Akinaka, the Director 
of Divine Rites. She served Jikenmonin, the Consort of the 
Empress Toba. Her fame as a poetess was great. It is men- 
tioned in this collection that she survived her husband, but 
who he was is unknown. 

XXIII. THE " NIJOIN SANUKI SHIU." 

Sanuki was the daughter of Sammi Minamoto no Yori- 
masa and served the Emperor Nijo (who reigned 1159 to 
1165). It is the opinion of Teikakyo that she was not inferior 
to lyetaka in poetic skill. She was often reputed as versed in 
Chinese classics. 

XXIV. THE " KENREIMONIN UKYODAYU SHIU." 

The authoress, Ukyodayu, was the daughter of Tomomasa 
and served the Empress Kenreimonin, the Consort of the 
Emperor Takakura. She was a celebrated poetess and musi- 
cian. She afterward became a nun and called herself Yugiri 
no Ama. • 

XXV. THE " TOSHINARIKyO JO SHIU.'" 

The authoress was the daughter of Toshinarikyo, a master 
poet. She had brilliant parts and was a great poetess. Her 
beauty was the topic of the day. One day she was informed 
that the plum trees in the garden of a neighboring temple were 
in full bloom. She went alone to enjoy the lovely blossoms, 
in dirty disguise. Questionable young men came close to her, 
much to her annoyance. She therefore turned her paces 
homeward, when the scapegraces, little dreaming who she 
was, began calling her names, and pointing to her shabby 
garments, quite a contrast to her beautiful features. She then 
extemporarized a poem which revealed her real self, upon 
which the rogues took to their heels in utter confusion. Not 
a few of her poems were taken into several Imperial compila- 
tions. In old age she became a nun and secluded herself in 

50 



her estate at Koshibe; hence her popular surname of " Kos- 
hibe no Zenni " or the ?iun of Koshibe of the Zen belief. 

Literature After the fliddle Ages. 

In the middle ages of our history, the members of the 
Fujiwara family had the reins of government in their hands. 
Seeing their power firmly established, they resorted to every 
form of luxurious extravagance, and were entirely absorbed 
in sensualit}'' and sloth. The Court and the town were only 
too glad to follow the manners of their real rulers. Drinking 
parties and concerts were enjoyed by almost every man and 
woman. Fine language was cultivated by all classes, high 
and low. Great pride was felt in competing with each other 
in wit and humor. No person made use of words or phrases 
until well considered. Many worthy poetesses and authoresses 
appeared at this time. 

But when the provincial warriors came into power about 
1 150, the influence of the courtiers declined and literature, 
which they so greatly patronized, lost much of its splendor. 
Half a century later we find the muses cultivated only by the 
tender sex. It happened not infrequently that the Court ladies 
teased their gentleman colleagues by asking them learned 
questions, which required some erudition to answer. In this 
age when men were generally illiterate, many worthy books 
were written b}^ women, of which some remain: 

THE BEN NAIJI NIKKI. 

A collection of poems in the form of a diary. It extends 
from the coronation of the Emperor Go-Fukakusa in 1246 to 
1252. The authoress was the daughter of Fujiwara Nobu- 
zane and a maid of honor to the Emperor Go-Fukakusa. 

THE NAKATSUKASA NAIJI NIKKI. 

The authoress, the daughter of Fujiwara Nagatsune, en- 
tered into Court service a little later than Ben Naiji. This 
diary extends from 1280 to 1292. Nakatsukasa Naiji wrote a 
great many poems, which are collected in a volume. 

Famous as these books are, the best known of all the 
literar}^ productions by women of the thirteenth centur}' and 
the various works b}' Abutsuni. 

51 



ABUTSUNI. 

Abutsuni had splendid talents and shone in various 
departments of literature, especially in Japanese poetry. Her 
father was a feudal lord, Sado no Kami Taira no Norishige by 
name. When young she served Ankamonin, the Consort of the 
Emperor Juntoku, and then called herself Shijo or Uemon no 
Suke. Abutsuni was her name after she took the Buddhist 
vows. 

Her husband, Fujiwara Tameiye, was the son of San- 
daiye, and grandson of Toshinari, both of whom were what 
answer to the poets laureate of the English Crown. He him- 
self suceeded to the literary office of his ancestors, and com- 
piled the Zoku Gosenshiu and the Zoku Kokinshiu. He 
bestowed on his infant son an estate named Hosokawa, in the 
Province of Harima, when on his death-bed. But since 
Tamesuke, for that was the infant's name, could not possibly 
manage the estate, Tameuji, his brother on the paternal 
side, was intrusted with its government. As too often hap- 
pens in like cases, Tameuji would not return the estate, where- 
upon Abutsuni went down to Kamakura in person and sub- 
mitted the case to Hojo Tokimune for decision. Tokimune 
then held the full powers of the State, except a mere show of 
subserviency to the Emperor. Abutsuni thus saw the estate 
returned to its rightful owner, and tradition says she there 
passed her last days. This traveling from Kamakura to 
Kyoto gave her a topic for a beautiful diary styled the Jiiiroku 
Ya Nikki (literally rendered sixteen nights' diary), which 
appeared in 1280. 

Tamesuke became a good poet, reflecting great credit 
upon his ancestors, who had often held the office of poets 
laureate. He was also installed in his father's hereditary 
office. His family name was Reizen. 

Abutsuni had a daughter named Ki no Naiji, who was 
justly famous as a poetess. 

Was it not remarkable that she made bold to present her- 
self before the august personage, who was a sovereign all but 
nominally, and that for nothing greater than the settlement of 
a family feud? Let this query be answered by another. How 
could our poetry have been kept so elevated and beautiful so 
many hundreds of stormy years if she had not placed the Reizen 

52 



family above want by restoring to the family the Hosokawa 
estate and so enabling them to lead the literary world for so 
long a period? 

Abutsuni wrote the Niwa no Nishiki and the Yakwakii 
Shin for her daughter's moral and literary education. These 
works prove her to have been an excellent mother. 

The Niwa no Nishiki details what a true woman is. It is 
a model which every person would do well to study. The 
Yakwaku SJiiu is a critical treatise on the poems of the various 
Imperial collections. It shows her to have been an able 
dialectician. Two other products of her pen are praise- 
worth}'. One is the Utatane, a sort of autobiography, which 
possesses high literary merit. The other is a series of pra5'ers 
she wrote for the salvation of her deceased husband. The 
pathos running through the whole volume is so great as to 
draw a shower of tears from all who read it. 

When, early in the seventeenth century, Tokugawa 
lyeyasu conquered the whole country, and found himself its 
ruler all but in name, he used all his endeavors to awake the 
nation to the importance of learning. This commendable 
work of the great Shogun caused a crowd of poets and scholars 
to appear. The learning of this renaissance period differed 
from that of the Fujiwara age, mainly in the two following 
points : 

First. In the latter period learning was literature, and 
literature was learning, but in the former, the term learning 
signified more, being used for many new sciences, among the 
rest politics, ethics, philosophy and economics. 

Second. Formerly it was only persons of quality who 
studied, and for their personal amusement. In the Tokugawa 
period even those in the lower grades of society began to 
learn but less for the sake of amusement and more for the 
sake of utility. 

At the Revival of Letters the Confucian doctrine of 
'women under men' gained such an ascendency as to make 
the comparative ignorance of the women anything but un- 
common, save in the poetic art. As was only natural, how- 
ever, to this highly literary age there then lived a number of 
distinguished female scholars, among whom Kaibara Hatsu- 
Ko and Otakasaka Isa-Ko are worthy of especial notice. 

53 



KAIBARA HATSU-KO. 

Kaibara Hatsu-Ko, the wife of Kaibara Ekkeu (1630- 
1714), was one of the most celebrated Chinese scholars Japan 
ever produced, and was also highly accomplished and virtu- 
ous. She traveled far and wide together with her husband, 
who served the Lord of Chikuzen, and made himself justly 
famous by his works on popular education, most of which it 
was wise of him to write in the easiest possible style. It is a 
well ascertained fact that Hatsu-Ko assisted her husband not 
a little in his literary pursuits. 

OTAKASAKA ISA-KO. 

Otakasaka Isa-Ko, wife of Otakasaka Shizan (1649- 
171 3), was a Japanese and Chinese scholar. Her husband 
was one of the most learned men of his time and was a 
vassal of the Lord of Inaba. Isa-Ko wrote the Kara Nishiki, 
a great work of thirteen volumes, in compliance with an es- 
pecial request of her husband's suzerain. The Kara Nishiki 
is a full treatise on female education and etiquette. Com- 
prehensive and beautiful as it is, she prepared it within so 
short a space of time as three months. We ask for no 
other information before we judge her a rare mistress of 
letters. 

Besides these two, Arakida Reiko, a noted historian and 
poetess. An do ^ame Ko, surnamed the Modern Shikibu, 
Rozenni, of whom we have spoken at some length under 
"Religion," Takashima Bunho, Inouye Micho, and a few 
others made their names more or less known by their 
Chinese as well as Japanese learning in the earlier years 
of the Tokugawa Shogunate. 

TAKASHIMA BUNHO. 

In the Bunsei period, which began with the year 1818, 
then lived one Takashima Yahei at Kojimachi, in Tokyo, of 
whose daughter we are now going to speak. When very 
young she already displayed rare talents, and a decided love 
of books. Her father allowed her young mind to follow its 
natural bent, and in time she made herself a great mis- 
tress of literature and the various feminine accomplishments, 
such as tea-making, hanaike (the art of arranging flowers in 

54 



vases), etc. Hundreds of the maids of honor serving in the 
Tokugawa household sent to receive instructions from her 
in poetry and other refined arts, a distinction that could not 
fail to make her famous. 

When quite young Bunho was prevailed upon by her 
father to marry a certain man. She became as dutiful a 
wife as a woman could, until an accident occurred which caused 
her to separate from her husband and live single the 
remainder of her life. One day a reunion was held on the 
second floor of her residence. After the guests went away, 
she was carrying the plates down stairs when she lost her 
footing on a high step of the staircase and fell headlong 
upon the ground floor. Her husband, who was yet upstairs, 
looked at her and asked, not if she were hurt, but if any china 
was broken. This she thought unnatural and unkind, and 
forthwith had her parents agree to the severance of the con- 
jugal connections. 

Her manners were extremely gentle and elegant, and her 
mind was correspondingly strong and manly. One day she 
was out walking in Muko Yanagiwara, when a pickpocket 
followed her closely and furtively. She caught sight of the 
rogue but showed no signs of discovery or alarm. With a 
presence of mind rarely seen in one of her sex, Bunho un- 
fastened a silver hairpin as secretly as possible and was 
throwing it at the thief's eye, when the astonished villain took 
to flight in all haste. 

ENOUYE MICHI-KO. 

Enouye Michi-Ko, the daughter of Enouye Manemon, a 
Sanuki samurai, and wife of Mita Moemon, displayed high 
literary talents long before she was of age and composed Jap- 
anese and Chinese poems very skillfully. When i8 she 
traveled to Edo in the suite of the lady of her father's liege 
lord, and wrote the Tokai Kiko; or, "■ East Sea Travels." Nine 
years later she returned home to Sanuki and then wrote 
another book of travels called the Kika Nikki; or, " Homeward 
Diary." She afterward married Mita Moemon, one of her 
father's friends. Her son, Yoshikatsu by name, became a 
famous scholar, quite worthy of his learned mother. Michi- 
Ko lived to see him honored with a tutorship to the Lord of 

55 



Sanuki. Her poems collected in a volume named the OJi 
Skill and her Travels, still remain. 

CONCLUSION. 

Our present literary galaxy has some very bright stars, 
but these we leave to later writers to describe. 

The foregoing pages are intended to tell what women 
have done towards the advancement of literature in our 
country. 

Were it not extremely difQcult to translate Japanese into 
English we would have given some of the gems of the differ- 
ent authoresses of whom we have spoken. In our opinion, 
anything like a readable translation of literary master- 
pieces from one into the other of so widely different languages 
as the two in question, is simply next to impossible. 



56 



CHAPTER IV. 

JAPANESE WOMEN IN RELIGION. 



The religions, and what pass as religions, now existing in 
Japan are Shintoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Christ- 
ianity. Among them Buddhism stands first in popularity. 
Shintoism has numerous believers and temples, but it is a 
misnomer to call it a religion, for it teaches nothing of man 
after death nor of aught that is profound. It has not had 
power enough even to assert its independence since the middle 
ages, often allowing the Buddhist priests to encroach on 
its -rights. Confucianism, too, is not a religion, as it teaches 
nothing but morality and politics based upon the sayings* of 
Confucius and his disciples. The remaining two, it is need- 
less to say, are true religions. 

Christianity has its abiding place in the hearts of only a 
small portion of the nation, despite the strenuous efforts of its 
modern, evangelists, mainly because it offended the Govern- 
ment and the people, when it was firs.t introduced, some' three 
hundred years ago, not because of its doctrines or rites, but 
because of the inordinate ambition of its propagators. Budd- 
hism was introduced into Japan more than a thousand years 
ago, and is believed in by a great majority of the people, and 
has been the means of greatly enlightening their minds, and 
it remains the chief religion even at present. It is not, there- 
fore, without reason that the lalns and virtues of women to be 
dealt with in this chapter are chiefly in connection with this 
religion. 

Shintoism, though not a religion, as said above, cannot 
be passed by without a word, as it concerns itself with the 
early deities of our history, and many of its rites follow antique 
customs. An instance was the employment of virgins as 

59 



priestesses. This custom is no longer in vogue, but, in an- 
cient times the greater part of the temples had Imperial Prin- 
cesses as superintendents of rites. When an Imperial Prin- 
cess was to be sent to the Great Temple of Ise, a temporary 
office, with a staff of more than a hundred officials, was estab- 
lished in the Imperial Court for the performance of a series of 
ceremonies to free her from human uncleanness. Once created 
the Saishu (superintendent of rites) she was considered as 
sacred and was highly respected. The Kamo Temple at 
Kyoto had at one time the same sacred superintendents, and 
the Imperial office established for the management of affairs 
concerning these superintendents was called the Kamo Cere- 
monies Bureau. This employment of virgins as superinten- 
dents was also in vogue amongst the common people. The 
Omonoimisaina of the Kashima Temple in the Province of 
Hitachi was an instance. From among the people living 
under the protection of the god worshiped in this temple, 
or ujiko, a girl under 7 years of age was selected, and 
after duly asking the god whether she would satisfy the divine 
will, she was made to reside in a beautiful house built beside 
the temple. Her dresses, food and other necessaries were 
offered her as respectfully and reverentially as if she were her- 
self a goddess. But when she attained maturity, she was dis- 
placed bv another young girl. Thus the term of this holy 
service varied from a few months to several years. After 
returning to their homes, they lived and married like ordi- 
nary women. 

Besides the high service above stated, these young girls 
served the various gods and goddesses as dancers, musicians, 
and necromancers. They were called miko or uneme. In mar- 
riage and other human affairs, they in nowise differed from 
their lay sisters. 

BUDDHISM. 

The Buddhist religion is not yet known to the Europeans 
and Americans in its true light. Their scholars too often 
write of it not unlike one who speaks of the interior of a man- 
sion while standing at its gate. This is not, however, so much 
due to the want of their investigations, as to the diversity of 
the wa3^s in which it has been explained. Shakamuni, him- 

66 



self, taught it in five different ways in his life, and his disciples 
taught one or another of these five in three more different 
ways, thus giving rise to a great number of sects and schools. 
Of these what has been introduced to Europe is the doctrine 
of a sect of the Hinayana or Smaller Development, while it is 
one of the Mahayana or Greater Development that has had 
the greatest number of devotees in Japan. 

The Shing07i, otherwise named the Yoga or Guhya, the 
most profound of Buddhist teachings, is a highly comprehen- 
sive doctrine. It looks upon all religious and ethical princi- 
ples with an equal eye, is inpenetrable to mere book readers, 
and is unfathomable to all except those who have listened as 
its great teachers have explained its nicer principles. Mani- 
fold as are the ways in which Buddhism is taught, each and 
all of them lead one to a profound understanding of Buddha. 
The length of time required for study and meditation must 
vary according to the ability of each devotee. 

The principal sects in Japan are: 

I. Two of the Hinayana: 
(i) The Kiisha or Ushu. 
(2) The Jojitsu or Kushu. 

II. Five of the Mahayana: 
(i) The Hoso. 

(2) The Sauron. 

(3) The Tentai. 

(4) The Kegon. 

(5) The Shingon. 

Of the five Mahayana sects, the Hoso and San/on are 
classed as the Gon Daijo or Preliminary Mahaya?ia, they being 
introductory to the Jitsu Daijo or Real Mahayana; the Teutai 
and Kegon as \}ii& Jitsu Daijo, and the Shingon as the Himitsii 
Daijo or Secret Mahayana. 

The Tentai has five subdivisions, viz. : The Yuzu-nembiitsii- 
shiu, Jodo-shiu., Shin-shiu, Nichiren-shiif, Sind Ji-shi ii. 

There is another sect called Zen-shiu, emanating from the 
Hoso and Tentai. Still another sect called Ris-shiit has some 
devotees. Though the Buddhists are divided into these and 
several other sects, yet all of them agree in the fundamental 
principle, which is to study the law of cause and effect in the 
moral sphere of human life. They differ among one another: 

61 



1. In the extent of the treatment, some limiting it to 
material things and others extending it to immaterial things. 

2. In the depth and width of the treatment of immaterial 
things. 

NUNS. 

The reasons upon which the Mahayana and Hinayana 
sects base the admission of women into the priesthood differ 
in some respects. The latter sect asserts that Shakamuni 
had not permitted any woman to take the vows before Ga7i- 
tami, his aunt, requested him to receive her as a priestess 
after the death of her husband, which request he declined at 
first, but to which he was afterward prevailed upon to con- 
seiit by one of his disciples named Anan, on condition of her 
keeping the following eight rules: 

1. A nun, though as venerably old as a century, shall 
pay respect at the feet of even a mere neophyte of the op- 
posite sex. 

2. A nun shall not censure a priest. 

3. A nun shall not find fault with a priest. 

4. A nun shall be instructed in the forty-eight Com- 
mandments by a priest. 

5. A nun shall confess her faults (if any) to a priest. 

6. A nun shall listen to a priest's sermon every half 
month. 

7. A nun Shall subject herself to a three-months' retire- 
ment in the spring or summer months, under the inspection 
of a priest. 

8. A nun shall confess her faults or request others to 
mention them after the said retirement. 

In Japan the priests and nuns who have been fully 
possessed of the Buddhist Commandments are respectively 
called biku and bikuni, after the Sanskrit words, bikuchn and 
bikuchuni. 

The Commandments for nuns are 277 in some sects and 
348 in others. 

Among the 348, the following eight are. the most import- 
ant, and are called harai after the Sanskrit word pharajika, or 
major crimes: 

1. Do not perpetrate any unclean act. 

2. Do not steal anything belonging to another. 

62 



3. Do not commit murder; do not make another com- 
mit murder; do not praise a murderer. 

4. Do not call one's self a sage without an amount of 
knowledge and wisdom worthy of that name. 

5. Do not touch any part of a man's body entertaining 
any amorous sentiment toward him. 

6. A nun shall not grasp the hand of a man that she 
knows to love her, or catch his garment, or go with him be- 
hind a screen, or talk with him, or lean upon his body, or 
appoint a time to meet him. 

7. A nun shall not conceal another's faults, when she 
and her religious sisters take the vows and make public 
confessions. 

8. A nun shall not live in a monastery with monks, be- 
fore she has taken the monastic vows. 

A nun who has broken any one of these eight Com- 
mandments is degraded, and is condemned, after her death, to 
an immense amount of pain in purgatoryfor 1,100,060,000 years. 

II. Seventeen of these rules are called sozan or 
sogyabashisha after the Sanskrit sareghadisesa. There are 
certain penances by which retributions may be avoided, 
but before these penances are achieved, a guilty nun is for- 
bidden to officiate in any holy service. 

III. Two hundred and eight in number are called shadatsu 
or nisatsitgihaitsudai (Sanskrit, naisarghikd). 

IV. Eight in number are called iaisetsu or haradaidai- 
shani after the Sanskrit pratidisanya. 

V. One hundred in number are called shiugaku or chukira 
(Sanskrit, sikchakarami). 

VI. Seven in number are called messo. These are for 
avoiding disputes. 

The punishment due to any but the first twenty-five of 
these Commandments may be avoided by devotional con- 
fessions or penances. 

Although these Commandments are for the Hinayana 
nuns, yet they are often kept by the more strictly disciplined 
ones of the Haniayana sects. 

In the Hamayana doctrine it is the mind that is made the 
object of teaching and therefore the distinction of sex is not 
considered in its devotees. 

63 



The Mahayana priests and nuns generally keep the same 
Commandments as do the Hinayana ones, but it is the ten 
major and forty-eight minor Commandments mentioned in the 
Bon-7no-kyo (Sanskrit, Brahmaghala Sutra) that are observed 
by the more strict of the Mahayana ecclesiastics. The latter, 
though considerably fewer than those of the Hinayana denom- 
inations, are much harder to keep. To illustrate this by an 
example, it constitutes a murder only to desire to kill a man 
according to the Mahayana doctrine, while according to the 
Hinayana, it does not, until one is actually killed. 

The ten major Commandments are: 

1. Do not kill a living creature with pleasure. 

2. Do not steal. 

3. Do not gratify the sexual passion. 

4. Do not be talkative with an object in view. 

5. Do not sell any alcoholic beverage. 

6. Do not talk about the faults of others. 

7. Do not praise yourself or vituperate others. 

8. Do not be covetous of any doctrine or law; do not 
insult it. 

g. Do not indignantly reject an apology. 

10. Do not depreciate Buddha, Buddhism, or Monks. 

The Hinayana schools aim at the salvation or entry into 
the ISfirvana of tiie learners, while the Mahayana make it their 
chief object to get others saved, that is, to induce them to 
enter Nirvatta. This essential difference between the two 
doctrines is to be observed in their disciplinary rules. 

There are three divisions of the Tendai sect: 

1. The Zen-shiu. 

2. The Hokke-shiu. 

3. The Jodo-shiu. 

The last has a sub-sect called Shin-shin. 

The Zen-shiu, the main doctrine of which is to under- 
stand the world as vacant and everything as nothing, was 
first promulgated in this country at the end of the twelfth 
century by Eisai Zenshi, who had learned Buddhism in 
China. The means by which the followers of his school 
think it possible to understand the truth in their fashion, is 
the zazen, or sitting with crossed legs in profound meditation. 

64 



The Hokke-shiu, founded by Nichiren in the middle of 
the thirteenth century, has its doctrine based upon the teach- 
ings of Buddha contained in the Sutra, called Hokke-Kyo 
or Sadhor-7napunda7-ika. This school teaches that the only 
means for attaining religious enlightenment is the repeated 
perusal of the holy book just mentioned. 

The Jodo-shiu, or Pure Land sect, founded by Honen, 
has for its main doctrine to aim at a second birth in the 
Gokuraku, or Sukhavati (Pure Land or Paradise), by the 
repeated recitation of the name of Amida Butsii or Buddha 
Aviikabha. 

The Shin-shhi is the same as the Jodo-shiu in every re- 
spect, except it does not forbid the priests to eat meat and 
to have wives. 

All these sects, except the Shin-shin, have nuns. 

The lower classes of this country are mostly believers in 
the Hokke and Shin-shiu, for the means they teach for leading 
one to Paradise, are the easiest. 

THE NOMENCLATURE OF NUNS. 

A woman who has left her home and entered a nunnery 
is generally called bikuni after the Sanskrit word bikchuni. 

A nun who has not yet taken the full vows is called 
shamini (in Sanskrit, Scramanerikd); one who has entered a 
nunnery and is taking lessons in the rites, by which she is to 
be ordained a bikuni, is named shikishainana, after the 
Sanskrit word Sikchamana, which name is not known 
among the laity and only seldom used even in nunneries 
at present. 

Lay women not living in a nunnery but firmly believing 
in Buddhism, sometimes took the five vows, of not killing any 
living creature; not stealing; not gratifying the sexual passion 
unlawfully; not being talkative; and not drinking any alcoholic 
beverage. These were called yubai after the Sanskrit word 
upasika. Such women were not rare in ancient times and 
some of them went so far as to abstain from marriage, and 
even to perform some religious services. At present they are 
very rarely seen and even the name yubai is well nigh 
forgotten. 

65 



NUNNERIES, THE LIFE OF NUNS AND THEIR RELATION TO MONKS. 

Nuns live in nunneries and there educate novices just as 
monks live in monasteries and educate probationers. For- 
merly the greater monasteries and nunneries did not forbid 
members of the opposite sex to live on the same ground, but 
when the Restoration occurred, it was followed by a general 
decrease of morality among the monks, and objections arose 
which resulted in excluding all women from monasteries. 

The clothing of nuns is like that of monks. They shave 
their heads and anything of an ornamental nature is prohibited. 
They do not blacken their teeth and shave their eyebrows, as 
is customary among some lay women. They do not use 
perfumed waters or carry scent-bags. 

A nunnery is presided over by a head nun, but the right 
of appointing or dismissing the presiding nun and all other 
important rights are held by the head monk of the sect to 
which the nunnery belongs. 

Nuns can visit monasteries for worship, but thej^ can 
never assist in the religious services there performed. Monks 
are sometimes invited to a nunnery to perform certain holy 
rites. Even in this case, no nun is permitted to officiate in 
any part of the service. 

RELIGIOUS WORTHIES. 

The mother of a family generally has more to do with the 
home culture of children than has the father; it therefore 
follows that pious mothers have pious children. The 
prosperity of religion is thus seen to depend much upon 
women. 

We have had a number of ladies of high birth, who have 
done much to make Buddhism prosper in this land, by build- 
ing monasteries and giving subsidies to the clergy. 

The Empress Suiko was one of them. It was in he.r reign 
that Buddhism was first put fairly on the pathway to pros- 
perity in Japan. Prince Shotoku, Regent, was a wise and 
learned man and a firm believer in Buddhism; and the 
Premier, Soga Mumako Sukune, was also a devout Buddhist. 
They must have done much for the benefit of Buddhism, but 
it would not have attained the prosperity it then enjoyed^ 
had it not been for the strenuous efforts of the Empress. 

66 



Among the twelve sovereigns, who reigned a century after 
Suiko, five were Empresses, all of whom were the protectors 
•of Buddhism, especially the last or Koken Tenno. 

The Empress Koken, the daughter of the Emperor Shomu 
and Empress Komyo, both devout Buddhists, did all the na- 
tional treasury could afford for the propagation of Buddhism. 
It is painful,' however,* to say that her love of religion went 
so far as to cause her to become a nun, and to give high offi- 
cial positions to the priests, not without producing injurious 
results. Her mother, so wise and benevolent that she was 
surnamed the " Nation's Mother," caused what were called 
provincial monasteries and provincial nunneries to be built 
in every province. She built a number of towers in Nara, 
then the capital of the Empire, and, indeed, it was in her 
time that the celebrated Daibutsu of the Todaiji was raised. 
She stands glorious in history as the originator of two 
benevolent institutions, the poorhouse and the dispensary. 
It is to be regretted that the regulations of these establish- 
ments have not come down to us. 

. As one travels through the different provinces of Japan 
one may see ruined towers, old corner stones, ancient tiles, 
etc., etc., in or near each of the ancient capital cities of the 
provinces. These are mostly the remains of the provincial 
monasteries and nunneries raised by the order of this benevo- 
lent and religious Empress. 

Before building a provincial monastery she ordered each 
province to make a gold image of Shakamuni Butsu, sixteen 
feet in height, and to prepare the 600 volumes of the 
Dai-hannya-kyo or Malia Prajna Faraniita to be afterward 
placed in the monastery. Each monastery had a seven- 
storied tower or stupo attached to it. In the tower there were 
to be placed ten transcribed copies of both the Kinkwotnyo- 
sai-showo-kyo or Sitvarna prabhasottaina raja Sutra and Myoho- 
renge-kyo or Sadharma pundarika sittra, besides a copy of the 
former in gilt letters. 

How grand these monasteries must have been may be 
inferred from an Imperial rescript of the following import: 

"The monastery is to be the ornament of the province. 
A good site is a necessary desideratum. If near to houses, no 
bad odors should come into it. If far, it should not be made 

67 • 



onerous for the people to visit it. The Governor should see 
that the rules of art and health are well observed." 

Each monastery had fifty families taxed at its pleasure, 
and lOO cho (about 250 acres) of rice fields bestowed upon it 
and each nunnery fifty cho of rice fields. The former was to 
have twenty monks and the latter ten nuns. 

These monasteries and nunneries varied in size and 
grandeur in different provinces, but those nearest to Nara 
were in general the largest and grandest. The Todaiji, then 
called So-kokubuji or Presiding Provincial Monastery, was to 
control all the other provincial monasteries. 

The Empress was skillful in composition and chirography, 
especially in the latter art, in which she is considered one of 
the three greatest mistresses Japan has ever produced. She 
invited celebrated hand writers of her time to her court and 
made them prepare the Issai-kyo on scented paper, the result 
of which was the production of the famous book known to all 
lovers of old things as the Empress Komyo's Sutra. A 
traveler in Yamato will see a number of old religious struct- 
ures, which will recall this pious Empress to his mind. In 
the propagation of Buddhism in Japan she stands, not only 
among women, but also among men, next to the greater 
patriarchs. 

We shall next give a short notice of the Empress Danrin, 
the Consort of *he Emperor Saga, who ascended the Throne 
some forty years after the death of the Empress Koken. She 
was very pious and benevolent. She built the Danrin-ji as a 
home for educated nuns. She had once a number of ex- 
quisitely ornamented Kesa or scarfs prepared, and sent a 
priest, Egaku by name, to China to give them to Chinese 
priests. She became a nun herself when her son, the Em- 
peror Jinmei, was dangerously sick, to pray for his recovery, 
so devout was her belief in Buddhism. Such as it was, her 
daughter, the Consort of the Emperor Junna, was also a pious 
Buddhist. She shaved her head and became a nun after the 
demise of her husband. She also celebrated a great mass for 
securing his salvation and disposed of her jewels and clothing 
to obtain money to be spent in holy offerings. She then 
converted an old palace at Saga into a monastery, and near it 
built a charity hospital for monks and nuns, and made the 

68 



Junna palace a residence for the nuns serving her. She sent 
Kesa and other things to a monastery called the Kokusei-ji in 
China for use in religious rites there performed, in memory 
of Chisha Daishi, the founder of the Tendai sect. More is 
said of this Empress under " Politics." 

In the Fujiwara period of Japanese history there were 
many Empresses and court ladies who were as religious as 
the Empress Danrin and her daughter. Indeed, there lived 
no Empress or court lady of high rank then but built one or 
more monasteries or nunneries. In the chivalrous and feudal 
period following this religions as well as literary enlighten- 
ment, no such ladies appeared, until the Tokagawa Shoguns 
firmly grasped the reins of government and restored the old 
state of things, when there appeared a great many women, 
high and low, who made themselves conspicuous in the relig- 
ious world. Of these Keisho-in Ichii (Ichii means first rank) 
is the best known. 

Keisho-in Ichii, a mistress of lyemitsu, the third of the 
Tokugawa line, was a daughter of a poor grocer of Kyoto, Jin- 
zaemon by name. When she was yet young, her father died, 
leaving another daughter and a son. Thereupon her mother 
was pressed by poverty and made Tama, as she was called, a 
servant to Mume San, a daughter of Arizumi, a Kuge, who 
served as a high court lady to the eldest daughter of Nobufusa, 
who was then the Prime Minister of the Emperor. She ac- 
companied her mistress to Edo, now called Tokyo, when the 
latter went there with the premier's daughter, who was the 
wife of the third Shogun. lyemitsu was struck with Tama's 
remarkable intelligence and made her his mistress, humble 
as she was. She gave birth to a son, the third of lyemit- 
su's in 1646. When the child Tsunayoshi, as it was called, 
.was at the helpless age of 3, his father died. Tsunayoshi 
was afterward created a great daiinyo and the poor grocer's 
daughter found herself mother of a feudal lord. The two 
other sons of the Shogun had died one after the other and 
Tsunayoshi was made the Shogun in 1681, when he raised 
his mother to the first rank of the peerage. Though born of 
humble parents, she was well read in Confucius' and Buddah's 
books, and her son was consequently quite a scholar. She 
was a devout Buddhist. One day she called the Shogun's 

69 



financial minister to her presence and asked him how much 
it would take to bury her, if she died. Upon hearing that it 
would require some hundred thousand dollars, she requested 
Tsunayoshi to give her that sum before her death, on con- 
dition that her burial ceremonies need not be anything more 
expensive than those of an ordinary woman. Tsunayoshi, who 
was distinguished for his filial piety, granted her request. 
She spent the great sum she thus obtained in repairing the 
oldest religious structures in the province of Yamato. The 
repairs now shown in several monasteries in Yamato are 
traceable to the piety and benevolence of this woman. 

Besides this she did much for the advancement of Budd- 
hism and learning, as well as for alleviating the pains of the 
needy. 

Women have done much for Buddhism, not only in being 
its illustrious patrons, but also in supplying it with not a few 
worthy devotees and nuns, among whom Riozen of the Zen 
sect is the most celebrated. She was truly a woman in form, 
but a man in mind. The Zen nuns' popularity at present 
owes much to the wise and benevolent conduct of this relig- 
ious lady. 

Riozen was born in Kyoto and when young served as a 
maid of honor in the To-fuku-mon-in Palace. She was 
equaled by no woman of her time in beauty. In general 
learning, in prose and poetic compositions, in the knowledge 
of Buddhist doctrines, especially of the Zen sect, she was a 
profound scholar. 

When she married a physician, Yasuwara by name, she 
requested her bridegroom to allow her to retire after she had 
borne him three or four children. Yasuwara, who was a great 
Confucian scholar, and quite unmindful of the ordinary affairs 
of the world, easily granted this request. At the age of thirty . 
she had borne three children and then she left her husband, 
shaved her head, and put on a kesa, that is, became a nun, 
all but residing in a nunnery. 

She afterward Avent about the countr}^ visiting one monas- 
tery after another of her favorite sect, asking questions about 
the difficulties she met with in her devotional studies. In 
1681, she saw Hakuo-Osho in Edo (now Tokyo). The great 
Buddhist gave no reply to her questions, and sent her away 

70 



from the monastery where he stayed, sa5ang that her beauty 
was too great for a pure religious life and that a woman should 
not be seen in so holy a place. Thus driven away she went 
to the house of an acquaintance, burned her face with a red- 
hot poker, and composed a Chinese and a Japanese poem 
both containing the following idea: 

" Once a maid of honor, I burned incense in the Imperial chambers. 
Now a forlorn Buddhist, I burn my face with red iron. The changes of 
the weather are nothing to be compared to those our lives may experience." 

She revisited Hakuo-Osho with these poems. The latter 
was struck with the strength of her spirit, and the firmness of 
her determination and instructed her in all the secrets of 
Buddhism. After that her devotion grew stronger and her 
morality purer. She then built a nunnery at Ochiai near Edo 
and called it the Taiunji. In this sanctuary she preached 
and taught and died. Before her time the Zen sect had the 
smallest number of nuns, for its doctrine is the hardest to 
understand, and its rules the most difficult to observe. But 
since her day, it has gained, and consists at present of large 
numbers of women, some highly famous for their profundity 
of learning and purity of conduct, chipfly owing to her illustri- 
ous and admirable example. 

Japan had, and has a number of women patrons and 
workers in the establishment and support of moral and educa- 
tional institutions, but their names will not be mentioned here, 
as they do not bear direct relation to religion. 

• In Shintoism there may have been some Women who did 
much in its propagation, but their names are unknown to the 
public, perhaps, because their work was comparatively light. 

In Christianity it is not to be doubted that there were 
many brave women who worked hard and died as martyrs. 
But since this religion was strictly forbidden under the Toku- 
gawa government, they were punished as ordinary criminals 
and it cannot be too much regretted that their names are lost 
in oblivion. 

LAY WOMEN IN RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS SISTERHOODS. 

There are two reasons why in nine cases out of ten women 
of ordinary moral intelligence believe in religious sisterhoods. 

71 



1. So they may live an easy life and be saved from all 
worldly anxieties. 

2. To more easily gain Paradise after death. 

It is not the teaching of Buddhism that one should 
believe in it, for such objects as these, but, if, by believ- 
ing in it, one can enhance her standard of morality, it is 
w^ell to do so for the good of the world, if not for any 
other reason. 

The religious duties performed by the Buddhists are: 

a. Each Buddhist family has a certain temple, in whose 
graveyard its deceased members are buried. On the anni- 
versary of a death that has occurred in the family some 
member or members of it visit the temple and have the priests 
read from certain Buddhist sutras and then make to them an 
offering of money or rice. 

b. One or more members of the family visit the temple 
on certain Buddhist fete-days. 

c. Each family has a sort of shrine where the family idols 
and tablets are kept. To this a priest or priests are invited 
on certain days of the year to have a mass performed for its 
deceased members. 

d. A member or members of a Buddhist family visit the 
temple it patronizes on certain holy days or the days on which 
sermons are given. 

e. The Buiidhists hold it their duty to go to hear some 
great priests preach. 

f. The Buddhists often give money to the priests in aid 
of the support of temples and monasteries. 

g. A fraternity or sisterhood is formed and money is col- 
lected by subscription in aid of certain monasteries or other 
holy places. 

There are sisterhoods of many descriptions, some for the 
support of certain temples, some for the propagation of the 
doctrine of a certain sect, and others for the benefit of certain 
idols. Some of these sisterhoods have several scores of hun- 
dreds of members. Among them the best known are: 

1. The Narita sisterhood for the support of the Fudo 
temple in Shimosa. 

2. The Seiryoji sisterhood for the benefit of the Seiryoji, 
where an image of Shakamuni carved in India is enshrined. 

72 • 



There is, indeed, no well-known temple in the whole 
country but has one or more sisterhoods laboring for its 
benefit. There are also many ladies' associations who invite 
some worthy nuns on certain days of the year in order to 
hear their preach. The Hokke-shiu and Jodo-shiu have each 
a great many sisterhoods, respectively called the Daimoku-ko 
and the Nembutsu-ko. The larger of these communities have 
presidents, secretaries, managers and treasurers, and some 
even standing committees for the collection of subscriptions, 
and for the management of miscellaneous business. These 
officers serve out of disinterested devotion and receive no 
remuneration whatever. Nor is this all. They often pay the 
expenses of the meetings out of their own pockets. The 
smaller sisterhoods have no presidents. They have only 
managers, who perform financial as well as other duties. 
The money contribution of a member of a ko, as a religious 
fraternity or sisterhood is called, varies from one to four or 
five sen per month. Some ko have special regulations for the 
mutual help of its members in case of extraordinary disasters. 
The Ko people are paid special attention to by the priests, 
when they visit the monasteries or temples, on funeral or other 
occasions. All sisterhoods perform their devotional duties so 
peaceably as to gain the admiration of all who know them, 
and that without any settled laws or regulations. 



73 



CHAPTER V. 

JAPANESE WOMEN IN DOMESTIC LIFE. 



The customs of past centuries, to some extent, still govern 
the lives of every Japanese woman. Rules of conduct for her 
■daily life, and for special occasions, were rigorously enforced 
during the Feudal Period, and to-day exist as household man- 
dates, somewhat modified by more modern customs. One of 
the indispensable qualities of a woman is gentleness of voice, 
united with that of manner; this naturally induces grace of 
movement, since the condition of the mind exerts great in- 
fluence upon the body. When very young the child is care- 
fully taught by its mother and grandmother to be graceful in 
manner, gentle in speech, polite and benevolent. "When she 
becomes a wife, a mother, or a grandmother these qualities 
continue to be imperative. 

While a strict observance of ceremon}^ is important for 
both sexes, it is the most important for a woman. Formerly 
fixed rules regulated every daily act, at present more latitude 
is permitted, with due regard to etiquette. To avoid all light 
and frivolous conversation or conduct, to reply politely, and to 
pay respect to superiors in age or in rank are rules which now 
govern the conduct of every woman. Even in the family life 
differences in age and in rank are strictly regarded. 

The persons to be most respected by a wife are, tirst, the 
grandparents of her husband; next, his parents; next, his 
elder brothers and sisters; then comes the husband; lastly, 
his younger brothers and sisters, as they are lower in rank than 
herself. The sons and daughters are also ranked according 
to their age, and under these rules the elder must love and 
care for the younger, and the younger must in return be care- 
ful in speech and in behavior and miist obey the elder at all 

75 



times. Among the duties of a wife it is necessary for her to 
teach other members of the family the rules of proper etiquette 
and to see that they are observed, and to conceal from all 
strangers any family faults. As the wife has the responsibility 
of the family etiquette she must be careful to observe all these 
rules herself; she must also understand domestic matters; 
know how to treat and govern her servants; to assist in the 
education of her children and the younger brothers and 
sisters; cut and make dresses for all the family, and give 
orders for the cooking. These and all other household 
duties come under her charge. Although her responsi- 
bility is very great and her duties onerous, yet she must 
try bravely to discharge them all and please her husband by 
skillfully arranging household affairs, amusing her children, 
and keeping the family happy and peaceful. 

A woman's duties keep her generally at home, but in case 
she has business to attend to, she goes out, first geting per- 
mission from her father, or mother-in-law, or her husband. 
Besides going out for business she also goes to see the plum 
and cherry blossoms, fleur-de-lis, and chrysanthemums in 
their seasons. Sometimes she attends a concert, garden 
party, or the theatre, and absents herself all day. So, besides 
the pleasure of bemg at home, she has also outside enjoyment. 

The three periods of a woman's life may be divided into 
childhood, wifelfood and motherhood. We will treat each of 
them separately. 

No. I— Childhood. 

The birth of a child is celebrated by all members of the 
family. If the first child be a girl it is considered very good 
luck. When a child is born all the relatives and intimate 
friends are at once informed of the event. As soon as they 
receive the news they go immediately to the house, taking 
with them some presents to show their joy. The presents are 
of various kinds, but consist chiefly of cotton-goods, raw silk,, 
silk, boxes of eggs, fish, toys, wearing apparel for the baby,, 
and katsitobnshi (steamed and dried fish). For some days the 
midwife attends and waits upon the woman in childbed, 
bathes the child once or twice a day, puts on loose clothing, 
the material of which is soft. The nurse holds the infant_ 

76 



carefully in her arms, and does not expose it to the outside 
air for a certain time. 

The name of the child is usually given on the seventh 
da}^ after its birth. It is generally chosen by its father or 
grandfather, but sometimes relatives or friends who hold 
exalted positions will choose the name. The names of girls 
are entirely different from those of boys, and the sound is 
simpler and shorter; they are mostly taken from flowers, trees, 
etc. The most common are " Matsu " (pine), " Take " (bam- 
boo), "C/me" (plum), " UH " (lily), "XiT;//" (chrysanthe- 
mum), etc. Sometimes the names are chosen for their good 
meaning. 

The name of a boy is sometimes an ancestral one. This 
is seldom given to a girl. On the thirty-first day, if a boy, 
and the thirty-second, if a girl, the child is carried in the 
arms of a nurse or servant to the temple. The baby is dressed 
in an exquisite manner, with the crest of the famity on the 
back and one on each sleeve. In case the child's father is a 
merchant the mother goes with it to the temple, and then 
takes it to visit the relatives and friends, and thanks them for 
the presents they have sent on the occasion of its birth. 

The hosts treat it kindly, and if the child be a girl, they 
will give her many toys. 

On the day of Miyamairi it is the custom to send sekihati 
(rice, steamed with red beans, with katsuobushi to those 
who sent presents at the child's birth. Sekihan is put in 
a beautifully decorated box called jiibako, covered with a 
cloth of gold brocade, or other costly material called fukusa. 
Naturally, the value of the presents differ according to the 
class and rank of the relatives; still the ceremony is about the 
same in all classes. 

The methods of bringing up a child differ greatly accord- 
ing to the rank of its parents. 

In a noble family, two or three attendants wait upon the 
mother, and the baby is constantl}^ held in their arms; they 
walk with it, up and down in the rooms, and they never let it 
lie down alone until it goes to sleep at night. These atten- 
tions are continued until the child is three or four years old. 

In the middle classes some hire a wet-nurse. If this is 
done, the first thing is to select one who has good health; the 

17 



second is to choose one who is of good character, and has an 
agreeable personal appearance. The nurse constantly carries 
the baby in her arms, feeds it when it is hungry; when it 
sleeps she tenderly lays it on a little cushion, and lets it sleep 
soundly; when it wakes she takes it up again in her arms, 
walks with it in the room, or out in the open air, within or out 
of the gate, and pleases the eyes and heart of the baby. 
Again, some hire a maid simply to amuse the child and not 
to nurse it. 

In the lower classes, the methods of bringing up children 
differ widely from those we have mentioned. Girls, from 
twelve to thirteen years, are hired to take charge of the chil- 
dren. They are called '■'■ komoriy In the street, "komori^^ 
may often be seen playing together, carrying the children on 
their backs, and singing nursery songs which are simple and 
peculiar in tune. They shake the babies on their backs to 
keep them quiet, and the babies putting their heads on 
" komorrs'' back, comfortably go to sleep. If the family is 
too poor to hire '' komori,'" the elder sisters care for the 
younger ones. 

The clothing of a baby is made in such a way that the 
body and the limbs are free from compression; then, as the' 
sleeves are broad, and the skirt long, it is very easily put on, 
and taken off. Thus the proper development of the body is 
thoroughly secifred. 

When the child is five or six months old, it begins to 
creep, and at eight or nine months, it crawls to the knees of 
its mother or nurse, takes hold of their dresses, and tries to 
walk by itself. When over a year, it can walk about in the 
room without any help, and seems to be exceedingly happy. 

In Japanese houses every room is matted, and as they are 
always thoroughly swept, and shoes are never used upon 
them, they are perfectly clean, and even the corners of the 
room are free from dust. As the Japanese people sit on these 
mats, eat and sleep on them, it is therefore very convenient 
for the children to creep, walk and play about. 

When a child is 2 or 3 years old, fine straw shoes 
or zori or geta (wooden clogs) are tied to its little feet, and it 
walks around in the garden, its mother and nurse holding it by 
each hand. 

78 



It is now time to begin to teach it how to speak and be 
polite to others. It is done in this way: The mother, grand- 
mother, aunt or nurse talk to it constantly while playing or 
while amusing the child with toys; or when they hush it to 
sleep; or whenever they have leisure they tell it some simple 
and amusing story of which there are many. As the story of 
"The battle of an ape and a crab;" that of "The boat- war 
between a hare and a badger; " the story of "An old man 
getting a prize by making the withered old leaves blossom," 
and many others. These are simple and amusing, so the 
child soon understands them, and will repeat them itself. 
Thus as the child grows older it gradually understands the 
language. 

The first morning duty of a girl is to go to her parents,, 
and kneeling before them, to say "Ohayo gozarimasu " (good 
morning). When she sits at the table for her meals she 
bows before she takes up her chop sticks, and when she fin- 
ishes she makes another bow. When she goes out to school, 
or elsewhere, either for play or on an errand, she kneels before 
her mother, bows, and then goes out. On her return she 
does the same. When she retires for the night she bows and 
says "Osakie" (excuse me for retiring before you). 

In case there be a visitor in the house, or she meets rela- 
tives or friends in the halls, she must bow very politely. In a 
family of high rank where there are numerous female ser- 
vants they wait upon the guests; but in case the visitors are 
relatives, or familiar friends, the daughter of the family makes 
tea, serves wine, or rice, and waits upon them. On such occa- 
sions she must be very polite and courteous in her behavior. 

Excepting in the family of a nobleman, girls are taught, 
not only manners, but they are carefully taught how to cook 
and sew. These duties must be understood by a girl before 
she can marry, and go to her husband's house. It is con- 
sidered a disgrace not to know how to cut and make clothing, 
to wash it, and to know how to attend to all household duties. 

The art of cooking is not learned from a regular teacher, 
but is learned at home by looking on, or helping the mother 
or servants when they are at work. Sewing is taught at 
school, or by the mother, aunt, or dressmaker, and every girl 
spends a great deal of her time in sewing. 

79 



Amusements and games for girls are numerous, as throw- 
ing a ball vertically upon the ground, and catching it on the 
back of the hand, or striking it with the palm of the hand. 
This is a game for girls of from seven to twelve or thirteen 
years, and is played in a garden, or in a room while singing 
pretty songs. The game of the bean-bag is for girls from five 
to ten years of age. The bag is made of pieces of silk, or 
crape, filled with red beans; it is about two inches square and 
is played somewhat like jack-stones. The number they play 
with is seven, or double the number; they throw and catch 
them with the palm or back of the right hand and pick them 
up with certain fingers. 

This game needs good practice and is very quiet and 
amusing. In January the favorite game is battledore and 
shuttlecock. This is played by girls of all ages and is a very 
pretty and healthful game. Beautifully dressed girls play the 
game with battledores made of light colored wood {Paul- 
lownia imperialis') and covered with silk raised work elaborately 
ornamented. They stand in a group or separate themselves 
at equal distances, and each one tries to strike the shuttle- 
cock in turn and send it to her neighbor. The shuttlecock is 
made of five small feathers variously colored, with their stems 
stuck into the center of a very hard seed {celtis-mukii). When 
the game is played songs are sung accompanying the sound of 
the seed as it strikes against the battledore and thus makes a 
perfect harmony. 

Beside these outdoor sports there are many indoor games 
played exclusively in January, such as: "Si/gorokii^' (back- 
gammon), "■Irohagaruta" (alphabetical cards), "Uta-garuta'^ 
(poetical cards), '^FukubikP' (drawing good luck, or lottery 
cards). There are several kinds of '^Sugorokii,^^ some are of 
geographical or biographical pictures prettily colored. The 
former is thus played: A die is thrown on it by turns, and all 
begin their journey from the same starting point; the one 
who first reaches the goal wins the game. ^^Iroha-garutd" con- 
sists of two sets; one set has old proverbs written on each 
card, beginning with one character of the alphabet. There 
are forty-eight of them. Another set has proverbial pictures 
on each card corresponding to that of the other set. Little 
folks play with these in various ways. One way is to scatter 

80 



all the picture cards here and there on the mats. One of the 
players read from the reading cards in order as they come and 
all the others try to get the corresponding picture cards as 
quickly as they can. Those who pick up the most win the 
gam.e. The games of the poetical cards {" Uta-ganita'") are 
more complicated and of higher character than those of 
"Iroha-gari/ta" and are played by older boys and girls. An old 
poet named Teikakiyo chose poems of a hundred celebrated 
old poets and these were written or printed on cards. 

Japanese poetry is composed of two parts. On one set 
of the cards only the second part is written; while on the 
other the whole poem is inscribed. The latter set is for read- 
ing. The ways of playing these cards are numerous; some- 
times they are played the same way as the " Iroha-garuta." 
Another way is to form sides, and divide the loo cards into 
equal numbers. Each person spreads his or her cards on the 
mats in the space assigned for them, and then tries to get the 
most away from his or her opponent. The side which has 
some cards left over is beaten. This is a most popular and 
exciting game, and it is so enjoyed by the players that they 
do not always realize when the night is far advanced. 

Another game called "/'///^/^(^Z/^/, " (lottery game) is played 
in the following manner: Several strings are held by the 
players at the end of which some expensive or cheap, useful, 
or comical things are carefully hidden, until at a certain 
signal the strings are drawn upon. Then, what a sight! 
What laughter! The room resounds with acclamations of 
unexpected joy. Not only do relatives and friends play this 
game together, but even the servants are invited to take a 
part. It is really amusing to see a maid trotting away with a 
silk hat on her head, or a very pretty young lady bearing off a 
large basket of charcoal. 

Besides these games, there is the doll's festival for girls. 
This takes place in March. Tiers of shelves, covered with 
bright red cloth are arranged in a room. On the first tier 
"■ hina'' (dolls) are placed splendidly dressed in gold brocade, 
representing the Emperors and Empresses. In the tier below 
are placed dolls representing royal guards, imperial female 
attendants, fine court-boy-musicians, one singing, one play- 
ing the flute, one the drum, and the other two the large and 

8i 



small " tsiiziuni^'' (a kind of drum). In the next row are 
placed various kinds of doll's furniture, as table-sets, bureaus, 
boxes of many kinds all made of the finest lacquer, and many- 
kitchen utensils. Below all this is placed many kinds of 
sweet cakes, dried fruits and candies. 

The relatives and friends are offered, by the young people 
of the family " Hishimochi'''' (rice cakes cut in diamond shapes), 
white sake (a sweet liquor made of rice and resembling milk), 
sweets, and other dainties, and of which the dolls are sup- 
posed to partake. This festival lasts from the ist to the 3d. 
On the last day guests are invited, and a feast is provided, 
and partaken from the small tables prepared for the dolls. 

When a girl is born in a family a new set of "hina''' 
(dolls) is added, and each generation retains those of the for- 
mer, as they are only used once a year. Until the later years 
of the Tokugawa government, girls' festivals were also cele- 
brated in July and September, but these are now given up. 
Girls, in order to be learned and accomplished, also skilled in 
all industrial work, must go to school. So the poor, as well 
as the wealthy, enter the kindergarten at about three years of 
age, and afterwards go to the primary schools, from which 
they graduate at about fourteen. They then enter the schools 
of a higher grade. Children going to the kindergarten are 
accompanied by their nurses or servants, while children of the 
nobility generally go in carriages or jinrikshas, though some 
of them walk. 

Obedience to parents is' the chief feature of a girl's moral 
education. This is not only taught her at school, but her 
parents and superiors constantly impress it upon her mind in 
their every-day talk. Thus a girl learns to feel that obedience 
is her most important duty, and she will never disobey her 
parents, but will endure any hardship to cheerfully and 
obediently serve them. This is a custom which has been 
handed down from generation to generation, and there are 
many touching stories of filial piety which are known to all 
young people. 

No. 2 — Wifehood. 

The age at which girls enter into married life is generally 
from seventeen to twenty-two. When a girl is of a proper age to 
marry, her parents ask their friends to find some suitable match 

82 



for her. Even when not asked, should there be a good match, 
friends will call on her parents and tell them about it. Incase 
both parties think every condition is satisfactory, the middleman 
manages to have a formal meeting between the two young 
people. After this, if each has no aversion for the union, the 
bridegroom sends to the prospective bride some rich material 
for an obi (sash), or a silk kimo7io (dress), with sake and fish. 
In return, the bride sends her future husband silk for a 
Jiakaina (or outside dress). This is called the Yuino, and is 
equivalent to a betrothal. These presents at the time of 
espousal are sent through the middleman. The middleman 
is, in a measure, responsible for the good faith of both parties. 
When the engagement is agreed upon, relatives and friends 
send presents of silk, Kaisiiobiishi, silk-wadding, or other 
valuable things, as congratulations on the betrothal. 

The day preceding the wedding the clothing, jewels 
and all the effects belonging to the bride are put in ^'tansi/'' 
(bureaus) and in long chests called "■ nagarnochi,'' and carried 
to her future home. The presents she has to give to the 
family are sent at the same time. These are carried by 
coolies in procession. The length of the procession, that is, 
the number of 'Hansu'' or ^' naga/nochi,'^ and trays of presents, 
depend upon the wealth and rank of the family. The day of 
the bride's entrance into her husband's house is considered of 
great importance. 

The wedding ceremony was formerly most solemnl}' cele- 
brated. Recently it has been much simplified. In very 
wealthy and noble families the}^ still keep to the old style 
and gravely and strictly go through the whole ceremony. An 
abbreviated account may be interesting: 

The room in which the ceremony takes place is decorated 
with artistically arranged flowers and hanging "kakemono" 
(pictures). These must be carefully selected. They should 
represent the *pine, f bamboo, |plum, §stork, §turtle, and any 
other object that denotes good luck and happiness. 



* The /•hie is an evergreen and is lasting, and is emblematic of a faithful heart. 

tThe bamboo is also an evergreen, it endures the heavy snow, cutting wind, and does 
not easily break; its flexibility and enduring qualities are emblematic of an upright mind. 

tThe//«;« is beautiful and blooms under the snow. 

^The stork is supposed to live a thousand years, and the turtle ten thousand years, 
and they represent longevity. 

83 



At the marriage ceremony the bride and the bridegroom 
are seated opposite each other. The go-between or middle- 
man, his wife, and sometimes one or two attendants are 
present. One of the latter gives to the bride one of three cups 
of sake, which are placed one above the other upon a small 
dai, or stand, used only upon wedding occasions. The bride 
drinks a few drops, and then it is handed to the bridegroom 
by the middle-man. This form is carefully observed three 
times with each cup, hence it is called '■'■ San-san-kudo,''' or 
three times three (nine cups). This ceremony over, the in- 
vited relatives and friends are introduced to the couple and 
all unite in partaking of a banquet. 

A few days after the wedding the newly married couple 
go to the house of the bride's father. This is called " Saio- 
gaeri" (returning home). The relatives and friends on her 
side are invited and together they enjoy a sumptuous 
feast. 

Some days after this, '^ seki han'' (red bean rice), with 
'■'■kaisuohushi'''' (dried fish), are sent to those who gave wedding 
gifts. This is almost the same as at the birth of a child. 

When a girl is married her most important duty is to 
serve and obey her husband. Foreigners who are not ac- 
quainted with our customs may perhaps imagine that a 
Japanese woman is a slave to her husband, but this is not the 
case. As the virtues of politeness and obedience are greatly 
cherished by our women, so a wife always respects her 
husband and endeavors to speak to him with modest obedi- 
ence. The husband in return loves his wife and never puts 
an unreasonable task upon her. Besides this he leaves all 
household affairs entirely to her management, so her power 
at home almost equals that of a queen. 

The management of her servants, the discipline of the 
house and domestic arrangements, are matters to which she 
must pay great attention. 

In addition to her husband there are others in the house- 
hold whom a wife must respect and dutifully obey. These 
are the father and mother-in-law. They are to be treated 
just as if they were her own parents. Until they become 
" inkyo" (retired) all household duties and power belong to the 
mother-in-law, but after her retirement these duties are trans- 

84 



ferred to the daughter-in-law. Even after their retirement 
the manners of the daughter-in-law towards them must remain 
unchanged. The daily duties of a wife are of various kinds: 
Purchasing articles of food, directing the cook, sending 
presents to people, receiving lady visitors and the friends of 
her husband. Among other things making dresses for herself 
and husband is considered the most necessary. A wife must 
ever be ready to serve and help her husband and also be 
faithful to his interests. 

No. 3 — Motherhood. 

If a wife is childless it is considered most unfortunate, as 
it will be difficult for her to retain the warm affection of her 
husband and the love of her father and mother-in-law. Con- 
sequently, domestic harmony is very likely to decrease and the 
pleasure of the home-life is greatly diminished. On the con- 
trary, if the wife is blessed by children, she is respected and 
loved by all in the family. She makes her home a place of 
happiness and brightness and cheers up all hearts. This is 
because children are so lovable and are the knot that joins 
loving hearts to each other. As Japan is a country where the 
line of succession is strictly regarded and where great pride 
is taken in an unbroken descent, naturally great distress is 
felt when there is no heir for the house. A mother's love for 
her children is so deep that nothing can compare with it. 
Human nature is the same all over the world, high or low, 
rich or poor. The mother always has her child near her and 
does not permit the nurse to take it far from home, nor does 
she allow it to be absent long from her sight. When it laughs 
she embraces it; when it cries she soothes it in her arms, puts 
everything away for it and devotes herself entirely to its 
care. So she declines invitations to garden parties, concerts, 
or the theatre; she sacrifices all kinds of enjoyments for the 
sake of her dear child; neither does she regret having done 
so. No one thinks it strange or out of place. On the con- 
trary, if she should go out for her own pleasure, leaving her 
child at home, many would say that she had but little love 
for her child and would therefore despise her. 

The education of children, especially of girls, is left en- 
tirely with the mother; not because the father does not love 

85 



them, but because the mother's cares and attentions are so 
thorough that he need not interfere. 

Although a mother loves her children so much, still she 
takes heed not to. spoil them. She always tries to teach them 
politeness and the proper manner of behavior. 

It is well to bring up a child strictly but overstrictness 
is not always advisable, therefore when a child has done 
something wrong the mother reproves it seriously, but the 
reproof of a mother differs much from that of a father. A mother's 
is more tender and the child instead of flying away to escape 
the reproof of its mother will obediently ask her forgiveness. 

The daily life of a mother is one of man}^ duties. She 
must arise early, summon the servants to open the doors and 
prepare the breakfast; she also directs the servants to wake 
up the children and dress them if they are too young to do it 
for themselves. 

After breakfast she prepares her children for school, puts 
together books, note books, luncheon-boxes, etc., and instructs 
how to bow and say sayonara (good-bye) before going out, to 
their parents and grandparents. Then it is time to attend to 
her husband and prepare whatever he may need to take away 
with him. When all is ready she goes to the genkaJi (porch) 
where the Jinrikisha (carriage drawn by a man) is waiting for 
him, and here she bids him sayonara. When he has gone she 
puts away his 'clothing, and after arranging all things in an 
orderly manner sits down to her sewing. While her delicate 
fingers are busily engaged with her needle, the fish or vege- 
table man comes and she orders her servants what to buy. 
Afterwards she receives her lady visitors or transacts any 
business a messenger may bring her. She is careful to see 
that the messenger has some tea, or she provides him with 
dinner, or supper if it is a suitable hour. 

When the children come joyfully home from school in the 
afternoon they go at once to their mother and say ^'■Tadaima''' 
(we have just come home). The mother welcomes them with 
gladness, gives them some fruit or cakes, asks them to repeat 
what they have learned that day and explains to them what 
they do not understand. 

After that she amuses them by telling interesting tales. 
Then they go to their grandparents' room and tell them what 



they have done at school, and the old people will amuse them 
by telling stories or playing with them. 

About this time she hears a jinrikiska-man call out, 
'^Okairi" (returned) and her husband gets out of the jinrikisha. 
The mother hurries to welcome him to his home with her 
children and servants. She assists him in changing his dress 
and otherwise helps him. Then she sits near him and gives 
him a minute account of what has happened during his 
absence. This done it is time for her to order the supper. 

Not long after this the house is closed for the night, but 
if the husband goes out in the evening it is the duty, as well 
as pleasure, of the wife to be awake on his return and have 
ready some tea and other refreshments. 



«7 



CHAPTER VI. 

JAPANESE WOMEN IN INDUSTRIAL 
OCCUPATIONS. 



Japan is a country which possesses great advantages in 
its physical situation and is rich in the products of both sea 
and land. Its form is long and narrow and extends diago- 
nally from southwest to northeast. 

Although the whole country is in the temperate zone, 
half of Chishima in the north lies in the frigid zone, while the 
islands of Okinawa in the south are very near to the Tropic of 
Cancer, thus it has all climates, cold, warm, dry and wet. 
Accordingly in it are found the various products of the tem- 
perate, torrid and frigid regions. 

From Hokkaido may be obtained seals, herring, salmon, 
kombit (a kind of sea-weed), and other marine products. 

The islands of Okinawa and Ogasawara produce sweet 
potatoes, sugar cane, tobacco, bananas, cocoanuts, lemons 
and pineapples. 

The country is very mountainous. In the interior chains 
of mountains extend from one extremity to another and level 
tracts of land are comparatively scarce, still the land is very 
fertile and productive. The warm current of the Pacific 
Ocean washes the southeastern shore, and the southeast 
wind from the tropical region brings with it a vast quantity of 
vapor. These together, fertilize the country and help the 
growth of animals and vegetables. So the soil and climate 
are well adapted for the production of rice, grain, silk, mul- 
berry and timber. As there are longitudinal mountam ranges, 
various valuable minerals are found in great quantities. The 
coal region especially is very extensive and more than half of 
its product is exported. 

89 



The country is entirely surrounded by ocean and seas, 
and its coast line is indented with harbors, bays and gulfs, 
while numerous islands cluster near the shore. The length 
of the coast line, including all the islands, is estimated at more 
than 15,300 ri (about 45,000 miles); the main island alone has 
a coast line of 3,800 ri (about g,ooo miles); so there is every 
convenience for fishing and making salt. 

As for Hokkaido, it is one of the three great fishing 
places of the world. Besides, it is most convenient for ship- 
ping and commerce. 

As the country has such favorable physical features the 
climate and the soil are well suited for extensive productions, 
so agriculture, rearing silk- worms and fishing have been carried 
on from the earliest ages. These different employments were 
highly developed more than a thousand years ago and a. good 
degree of civilization resulted therefrom. Grain and fruits 
were produced, sake and sauces were made in great quantities 
in those days. 

The arts of sculpture and wood engraving also received 
much attention from skilled workmen. The grand Buddhist 
temple of Horinji, noted for its splendid carvings in wood, as 
well as the beauty of the edifice, are enough to prove both the 
beauty of the timber and the skill of its workmanship. 

Again the great bronze statue of Buddha, fifty-four feet 
high, in the fertile of Todaiji in Nara; the copper statues of 
Nikko, Gekko and Yakushi in Yakushiji, and the still older 
gilded weapons of copper and iron dug out of the ground show 
that mining, as well as the arts of casting and working in 
metals, were far advanced. The beautiful and delicate silk 
brocades and other costly materials preserved carefully in the 
storehouses tell us that the arts of rearing silk-worms and 
weaving were also greatly perfected. Besides these, many 
other things which show the developed state of different in- 
dustries are found among the treasures carefully preserved in 
these same storehouses, such as mosaic work, decoration of 
mirrors, checker-boards of inlaid work, prayer-book cases 
ornamented with agate, silver, gold and tortoise-shell work, 
colored ivory or glass work, peculiar paintings done with paints 
called Mitsudaso, lathe work, colored earthen ware and dyed 
materials. There is really no limit if we attempt an enumera- 

90 



tion. Such were some of the industries at the period when 
Nara was the Imperial capital, or even before that time, about 
1,000 or 1,300 3'ears ago. Since then many great improve- 
ments have taken place. 

We will here add a list of the productions oi the different 
provinces: 

Honshiu. 

Tokyo — Silks, cotton cloth, cotton thread, socks, round 
fans, colored pictures, tortoise-shell work, gold-lacquer work, 
brushes, wooden clogs, bamboo work, beer, wines, cigars 
and various kinds of paper. 

Kyoto — Silks (brocade, satin, velvet, etc.), d3^ed stuffs, 
embroideries, fans, porcelain, metal work, lacquer, toys, 
powder, rouge, tea, etc. 

Osaka — Cotton thread, socks, tobacco pipes and cases, 
toys, tortoise-shell work, sak^, etc. 

Kanagawa-Ken — Silks, cotton cloth, raw silk, preserved 
vegetables, different kinds of fish, etc. 

Hiogo-Ken — Leather work, cotton, sauces, salt, sak^, 
yanagigori (traveling box made of willow), raw silk, etc. 

Niigata-Ken — Lacquer, petroleum, sudare (a shade made 
of split bamboo or reeds), silks, cotton, various kinds of 
fish, etc 

Saitama-Ken — Cotton cloth, raw silk, etc. 

Chiba-Ken — Sweet potatoes, sauces, sweet sake, fagots, 
charcoal, sardines, dried sardines, katsuobiishi (dried fish), etc. 

Ibaraki-Ken — Tobacco, paper, tea, silks, cotton cloth, 
shiitiekasu (boiled sardines, pressed in frames, dried and used 
as a fertilizer). 

Gumma-Ken — Raw silk, silks, cotton cloth, tanegami 
(paper on which the eggs of silk worms are deposited). 

Tochigi-Ken — Cotton, silks, raw silks, flax, lacquer, lathe 
wood, etc. 

Nara-Ken— Cotton cloth, linen, lacquer, timber, kiidzit 
(the " pachyrrhizus thunbergianus "), etc. 

Miye-Ken— Tea, rice, grain, fish, cotton, timber, paper, 
pottery {banko-yaki), tobacco cases, umbrellas, mats, lacquer, 
shellfish, seaweeds, etc. 

Aichi-Ken — Earthenware, sake, vinegar, fans, cotton 
cloth, mosaic work, etc. 

91 



Shidzuoka-Ken — Tea, paper, cotton, fish, timber, etc. 

Yamanashi-Ken — Silk goods, raw silk, crystals, fruits, 
(grapes, pears, persimmons and chestnuts), etc. 

Shiga. Ken — Oil, linen, raw silk, silks, floor mats, lime. 
etc. 

Gifu-Ken — Kozo (paper mulberry, broussonetia papyri- 
fera), mino-paper, striped cotton cloth, tea, paper lanterns, 
timber, raw silk, lime, etc. 

Nagano-Ken — Raw silk, tanegami, silks, cotton cloth, 
linen, floor mats, timber, drugs, etc. 

Miyagi-Ken — Silk goods, raw silk, flax, katsuobushi, 
oysters, shimekasu, dried beche-de-mer, and other kinds 
of fish, etc. 

Fukushima-Ken — Raw silk, tanegami, lacquer, copper 
work, horses, etc. 

Iwate-Ken — Raw silk, silk goods, linen, iron pots, fish- 
ing nets, horses, oxen, etc. 

Aomori-Ken — Raw silk, silk goods, mats, oxen, horses, 
sea products (codfish, dried sardines, dried sea-ears, dried 
beche-de-mer, and diflerent kinds of shellfish), etc. 

Yamagata-Ken — Raw silk, silk goods, flax, copper 
work, etc. 

Akita-Ken — Silk goods, lacquer, macaroni, metals (gold, 
silver, copper and lead), metal work, etc. 

Fukui-Kefi — Silk goods, linen, paper, edged-tools, etc. 

Ishikawa-Ken — Earthenware (Kutani), lacquer, copper 
work, inlaid work of gold and silver, cotton, raw silk, silk 
goods, vermicelli, different kinds of fish, etc. 

Toyama-Ken — Cotton, medicine, copper-casting, straw 
mats, diflerent kinds of fish, etc. 

Tottori-Ken — Cotton cloth, raw silkj iron, steel, etc. 

Shimane-Ken — Cotton, iron, steel, wax, etc. 

Okayama-Ken— Cotton cloth, floor mats, earthenware, 
tobacco, etc. 

Hirqshima-Ken — Cotton, salt, floor mats, oysters, etc. 

Yamaguchi-Ken — Salt, cotton, flax, earthenware, etc. 

Wakayama-Ken — Camphor, timber, oranges, different 
kinds of fish, etc. 

Shikoku. 

Tokushima-Ken — Indigo, tobacco, salt, etc. 

92 



Kagawa-Ken — Sugar, salt, stones, etc. 

Ehime-Ken — Wax, salt, sauce, sugar, paper, etc. 

Kochi-Ken — Paper, katsuobiishi, coral, etc. 

Kiusliiu. 

Nagasaki-Ken — Wax, coal, lacquer, tortoise-shell work, 
tobacco, earthenware, etc. 

Fukuoka-Ken — Wax, silks, cotton cloth, candles, sake, 
camphor, floor mats, etc. 

Oita-Ken — Floor mats, figured mats, camphor, etc. 

Saga-Ken — Camphor, wax, tc^bacco, earthenware, 
paper, etc. 

Kumamoto-Ken — Paper, flax, floor mats, cotton cloth, etc. 

Miyazaki-Ken— Paper, timber, camphor, different kinds 
of fish. 

Kagoshima-Ken — Camphor, sugar, fish, cotton cloth, 
tobacco, earthenware, etc. 

Okinawa-Ken-(Liu choo) — Jofu (grass cloth of the finest 
quality), sugar, floor mats, lacquer, pongee, etc. 

Hokkaido- (Yezo) — Sea products (salmon, cod, kombu, 
herring, sardines, whales, seals, dried beche-de-mer, etc.), 
linen, coal, sulphur and timber. 

These are only the most famous products, but it may be 
seen from this list that there is a great variety. 

In farming, fishing, cutting timber and in all kinds of in- 
dustries women always do a share of the work, and we may 
positively assert that one-third of all the above enumerated 
products are obtained by their labor. 

The population of the empire on the 31st of December, 
i8go, the twenty-third year of Meiji, was estimated at 
40,453,461. Males, 20,431,097; females, 20,022,364. 

The Department of Agriculture and Commerce investi- 
gated the exact number of men and women engaged in differ- 
ent occupations. The result was as follows: 

Males, 11,400,008 

, Females, 10,948,053 

In Agriculture, 



In different industries, -, 



Total, 22,348,061 

Males, 1,017,200 

Females, 940,649 



Total, 1,957,849 
93 



I Males, 2,113,634 

T ^ I Females, 1,878,008 

In Commerce, - -; 

[ Total, 3>99i>732 

\ 
Miscellaneous Business, -{ 



Males, 2,591,585 

Females, 2.749,945 



L Total, 5>34i.53o 

It is to be much regretted there are so few authentic 
records of the work done by women in ancient times. The 
lives of a few women have been written, but they were mostly 
celebrated for their skill in playing on different instruments, 
or in composing poetry; very few names are mentioned of 
women who were engaged in productive employments, and 
these few are inaccurate; still it is an undisputed fact that 
women have done a great part of the work of rearing silk 
worms, weaving and other important industries for more 
than 2,000 years. 

As we shall write something of agriculture, forestry, 
marine productions, different industries and commerce in 
regular order, we shall describe work done by women. We 
shall also give historical data, as well as the present condition 
of various productive occupations in the different provinces 
of the empire. 

Agriculture. 

FORESTRY. 

Agriculture is the source of the wealth of our country. 
Rice and grain are used for our daily food, so the work of the 
farmer has always been regarded as very important, and every 
means has been taken to encourage it. Although the surface 
of the country is generally mountainous, its mountain sides, 
as well as its valleys and plains, are ploughed and cultivated. 
The land owned amounts to 13,794,361 tan, about 2,751,526 
tan and 7 ho being in rice fields and 2,291,127 tan and 8 ho 
being in small farms, (i tan=^io,d,oo sq. ft. i ho^-^6 sq. ft.) 

The chief products for food are rice, barley, wheat, buck- 
wheat, millet, beans, small red beans, Indian corn, sweet 
potatoes, greens, fruits, etc. The materials manufactured are 
cotton, flax, sugar cane, tobacco, indigo, rape-seed, oil, wax, 

94 



Isicquev, gam/>i (a kind of thin paper Wickstroemia canescens), 
edgeworthia papyrifera, /eozo, etc. 

The chief articles of export are tea, silk and lacquer. 
Rearing silk worms is the occupation of the peasants in 
Shinano, Kotsuke, Iwashiro, Musashi and other districts. 
The yearly production of cocoons is 1,115,000 /v/v/ (i kokii = 
bushels, 5,555); that of tanegaftii from 230,000 to 240,000 
sheets; raw silk from 800,000 to 1,000,000 kwa/i (i kwan = 
lbs., 8,282); floss silk and waste silk, each 40,000 to 50,000 
kwan. 

Tea is grown in every district except in Hokkaido. The 
amount of tea exported in the twenty-third year of Meiji 
(1890) was 37,250,720 kin (i kin==Li}i lb.), and its value about 
6,326,881 yen. 

More than half of the women of the country are employed 
in agriculture. In the spring, when the snow still lies deep 
on the ground, they clean the rice from the hulls facing the 
cold north wind, or they manure the mulberry trees, tea and 
the kozo plants. 

From the i8th of March they are busy sowing the seeds 
of different kinds of beans and other vegetables, grafting 
trees, etc. When it is, warmer and the shoots of rice begin to 
grow, it is time to plough, cultivate the fields and plant other 
seeds and trees. 

On the 2d of May the silk worms grow to their full 
size and eat great quantities of mulberry leaves, then is the 
time when those who are engaged in rearing silk worms find 
it hard to rest, either by day or night. 

In June the shoots of rice are separated, the winter 
wheat is reaped, seeds are sown, and this is the busiest sea- 
son for the farmer. 

When summer comes the rice fields must be irrigated 
and weeded. This is also the season in which to cut and dry 
tobacco and indigo leaves. 

In September, when the soft autumn coolness begins to 
be felt and everything is ripe, the rice harvest begins; plough- 
ing also is done, and wheat is sown and transplanted. 

In November, all the farm work is finished, but coverings 
for trees must be prepared to protect them from the frost and 
wood must be cut for fuel. 

95 



Large numbers of women are engaged in these labors 
during the entire year. 

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF AGRICULTURE. 

As our country is fertile and well adapted for the growth 
of five cereals (wheat, rice, millet, beans and sorghum), the 
art of cultivation was known from the earliest ages. 

Formerly linen was largely used for clothing, and the art 
of rearing silk worms was practiced by women from early times, 
indeed the Empresses themselves were often known to rear 
worms and engage in weaving. The Emperor Sujin (B. C. 
97-30) made new tax laws. The tax paid by a man was called 
Uhazu-no-mitsiigi, and that of a woman was called Tana-siie- 
no-mitsiigi. Uhazii-no-miisi/gi means " an offering of deer 
horns, skins of bears and other animals killed by himself. " 
Tana-sue-no-initsugi means "an offering of silk or cloth woven 
by the woman." Thus it appears that women had an equal 
share in the daily industry at a very remote period. 

At the time of the Emperor Ojin (A. D. 283), Uzuki, 
Prince of Kudara (a province of Corea), came to Japan with 
emigrants from 127 other provinces. These people were skill- 
ful in rearing silk worms and in weaving. The Emperor 
Yuriaku (457-479) encouraged this industry and ordered 
Sugaru, an official, to collect the eggs of silk worms for his 
Empress " Ki^saka-no Hata-hime, " and for her to feed the 
worms and attend to all the work herself. From this time 
this be.came a most important occupation for women. 

During the reign of the Emperor Kotoku (A. D. 645) a cen- 
sus was taken so that the accurate number of the population 
was known; the land was surveyed and a register made of all 
cultivated lands, also new rules regarding the taxes were pro- 
claimed. This was called Handen, that is, two tan of land was 
given to a man, and two-thirds of two tan given to a woman, 
and both were to pay their taxes to the government in work. 
Ukazu-no-viitsugi and Tana-sue-no-niitsugi were now abolished, 
but the women had to cultivate a certain amount of land 
which was assigned to them and also weave silk or linen as 
before. 

From the time of the Emperor Saga to the Emperors 
Junwa, Ninmei, Buntoku, Seiwa and Koko (ninth century) 

96 



the}^ all made great efforts to improve agriculture; ordering 
the governor of each province to go himself and encourage the 
farmers to improve ponds and watercourses, and thus increase 
irrigation, and to also do all possible to aid in the fertilizing 
of the land. They often lessened the taxes, fed the people 
and helped their wants in many ways. 

When the Fujiwara family grasped the power dissipation, 
luxury and idleness were the order of the day, and the 
disciphne of the government was lessened. The result was, 
discontented men rose in mobs, collecting others in different 
parts of the country, and defied the officials, robbed the help- 
less people and prevented the farmer from working peacefully 
in his fields. Thus many of the farmers lost the seasons for 
rearing silk-worms or cultivating the soil. So the rice fields 
and the farms lay waste. This frequently happened, especially 
in the time of Hogen and ^(?z)V (i 156-1 159). The war between 
the two houses, Genji and Heike, gave no peace to the farm- 
ers, and they were obliged to take their families and property 
and fly to the mountains. Their rice fields and farms were 
trampled over by war horses, or, if they fortunately escaped 
that calamity, they could not evade the heavy taxes which 
they were obliged to pay to the governor of the province for 
the expenses of the war. The sufferings of the farmers were 
extremely great. 

When Yo7'itomo, the great general, established a tempo- 
rary government and a member of the Hojo house became 
the Prime Minister (1220) but little peace was obtained. 
Yasutoki and Tokiyoti of the Hojo house frequently relieved 
the people when suffering from want, and reprimanded the 
lords of the provinces for their tyrannical conduct. For a 
while the farmers felt as if they might recover from their 
losses but this hope did not last long. The latter part of the 
Kamakura government (1331) was filled with the horrors of 
civil war between the houses of the North and the South, 
both having a rightful claim to the thfone of Japan. 

Then the power of the temporary government passed to 
the Ashikaga family and afterwards to the Toyotonii family. 
During an interval of 300 years the country was constantly in 
a state of confusion and disturbance and the people could not 
engage in peaceful occupations. The women were in a very 

97 



miserable condition during this war-like period. The power 
of the whole empire lay in the force of arms, and for anyone 
without a name, without an education, but skillful in the art 
of war there was an opportunity to rise at once to a great 
military career. Naturally all persons regarded military serv- 
ice with great respect. Men could do as they liked but 
women were kept in a state of submission, and while some 
took charge of the most difficult household labors during the 
absence of their husbands many others entered into the 
service of houses of higher rank. 

Each military man, or samut'ai (knight), served his feudal 
lord generation after generation. As the heir of the house was 
limited to the male sex, should the heir die the allowance 
from the lord was cut off; thus a greater respect was felt for 
men than for women and this had the effect of making the 
latter weak-minded and without courage. This war-like con- 
dition of the country thus made a remarkable change in the 
state and occupations of women. 

The seeds of the tea plant came to Japan in the time of 
the Fujiwai-a family, but for many years tea was not much 
used. At the beginning of the Kamakura government (iigo) 
Eisei, the founder of the Zenshu (one of the religious sects), 
brought the tea again from So (China), and it gradually came 
into general use. When the Ashikaga Shogun, Higashiyatna 
favored the ''Cha-no-yu " it became very fashionable and it 
now seems that tea is an indispensable beverage. 

The cotton seed was known in the time of the Fujiwara 
family, but afterwards it went entirely out of cultivation. In 
the year 1592 it was planted for the second time and soon a 
great amount of cotton cloth was woven, and took the place 
of silk and linen for wearing apparel. Spinning and weaving 
cotton and picking tea leaves became suitable occupations for 
women and they were constantly employed in these labors. 

When the government of the country fell into the hands 
of the Tokugatua family in 1603, the great Shogun lyeyasu, 
practiced the greatest economy; he forbade all luxury and en- 
couraged farming. When out hunting he would go about 
among the people to study their condition. Accordingly the 
lords and governors of different provinces became more 
merciful to the farmers and encouraged agriculture; thus 



with peace the state of both men and women became more 
flourishing. 

Proclamations were issued from the temporary govern- 
ment of the Bakiifu, in which there were many laws respecting 
the occupations of women. A few examples will suffice. 

The following is an extract from a proclamation issued by 
the temporary government of the Bakufu in the second year 
of Heia7i, 1649: (The first part is omitted.) 

" The husband and wife must work together for their mutual benefit, 
the man in farming and the woman in spinning and weaving till late in the 
evening. If a wife neglects her husband, drinks too much tea, or spends 
her time in pleasure, or sight seeing, then, although she may be handsome, 
her husband may divorce her; but in case they have many children, or if 
she has done some meritorious service for him in time past it will make a 
difference. On the other hand if she tries to work for the good of her 
husband's house she must be treated with much kindness, etc." 

Here is another example. This is from the manuscript 
of an announcement issued by the governor of Tosa Province, 
named Nonaka Deneiiion: (The first part is omitted.) 

"Daughters of peasants from 10 to 16 years of age must have some 
work assigned them according to their age and ability." 

Again it says: 

"The children of peasants from the age of 8 or 9 must learn some 
kind of occupation." 

(Here an omission.) 

"In the fishing districts boys and girls must be taught various 
methods in regard to fishing. When a boy reaches 8 or g years he must 
learn to handle the oars, make nets or other fishing tackle. These may 
differ somewhat according to the different districts. Girls must learn to 
spin flax and do other kinds of women's work. When they are 15 or 16 
years old they must decide how much work they can do during the month 
and make it known to the owners of houses or to the elders of the place, 
and then they must go together to the temple of the family gods, and 
register a report of their work in the proper book, etc." 

These public notices show how much work was done by 
women in those da3's, and even now much the same rules are 
observed. Since the country has been opened to foreign 
commerce some alterations have taken place, but in regard to 
agriculture or forestry we see no remarkable change except 
that business has greatly increased. Idle girls have been 
encouraged to work and earn money hy rearing silk worms, 

99 



and picking tea leaves. Indeed, since these two products 
have made so great an item in the exports to foreign countries 
women have had more chance to earn their living than ever 
before. 

Present Condition of the Provinces. 

The largest plain in Japan is found by the shore of the Ishi- 
kari River in Hokkaido; next is the plain of Kwanto; then that 
between Mino and Owari, and one in the neighborhood of Chi- 
kugo River; and all the land excepting the bare, rugged moun- 
tains and sandy regions, is thoroughly cultivated and the larger 
part of it is taken up in rice fields. The provinces of Musashi, 
Ise, Hitachi, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Ugo, Echigo, Owari, Mino, 
Omi, Hoki, Idzu, Chikuzen, Chikugo, Higo and Hizen are 
the richest in producing rice. The amount of rice produced 
annually in these provinces reaches a total of 30,000,000 to 
40,000,000 Koku. (i Koku = 5, 13 bu.) 

Women are engaged in the cultivation of the rice fields 
and it is the most important work in which they can be em- 
ployed. They sow the seeds early in the spring and wait 
until the warm rains have caused them to sprout, then with 
much singing and merry laughter they are transplanted into 
regular rows. When the shoots are a little grown, the fields 
are carefully weeded. In the hot summer days when there 
are no ponds or rivers near the fields, water must be carried 
from morning until night to irrigate the growing plants. 
When the harvest time comes women cut the rice, dry, thresh 
and whiten it. Then it is ready for market. During these 
busy days the women have also to cultivate other grains and 
vegetables, rear silk worms, dry tea leaves. In the evening 
they grind meal and spin thread, etc. 

The provinces of Shinano, Kotsuke, Iwashiro and Musa- 
shi are noted for silk; and Uji of Yamashiro, Shigara of Omi, 
Sayama of Musashi, and the provinces of Ise and Mino are 
the districts best suited for the growth of the tea plant. Dur- 
ing the silk and tea seasons not only are the women of the 
place engaged, but many from different districts come to be 
hired. Thus the locality becomes very lively for a certain 
time. Singing, talking and laughing are heard in every 
house. The wages are from 15-25 sen a day during the 
season. 



During the tea season in the districts of Shidzuoka 
women come in parties of 200 or 300 to be hired. They 
come from Idzu, Sagami and other provinces. When their 
work is done they return to their homes in better condition 
than when they left. They travel home in new suits of sum- 
mer clothes, and carry new parasols, and seem to be very gay 
and happy. In Yamato, Kii, Suruga, Towtowmi, Idzu, Shin- 
ano and other provinces where the forest trees propagate 
rapidly, women plant the young shoots and take charge of 
them. 

The Fishing Industry. 

Our most important products are obtained from the sea, 
so the net and line are essential implements for increasing the 
wealth of the country. Although many countries are sur- 
rounded by water, are rich in rivers and lakes, no other coun- 
try has the same advantages that we have. 

The east, south and west coasts, facing the seas, are 
indented with bays and capes. As the climate is temper- 
ate, fish, shellfish and seaweeds of various kinds grow 
abundantly. 

The northern shore is washed by the waters of the Arctic 
Ocean which is filled with fish, and abounds in different kinds 
of sea animals. In the interior of the country rivers run in 
various directions; lakes and marshes are scattered here and 
there, so the products of fresh matter are also abundant. 
Where so many varieties of fish and other sea products 
abound, it is no wonder that with a few vegetables fish has 
been the almost invariable food of the people, and even the 
manure for rice (our "staff of life") is prepared from dried fish. 

The principal sea products at present are sardines, her- 
ring, katsiio, cuttlefish, codfish, salmon, beche-de-mer, sea- 
weeds, etc. There are sixty varieties of sea products of which 
the value is estimated at over 10,000 yen a year. The total 
value of the sea products of the twenty-first year of Meiji 
(1888) is as follows: Herring, 4,323,176 yen; sardines, 2,325,- 
840 yen; katsuo, 1,617,515 yen. The sum total of these with 
other fish were 19,369,480 yen. 

The principal exports now are cuttlefish, seaweeds, 
beche-de-mer, dried sea ear, crabs, etc. These are sent 
chiefly to China. 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY. 

From the earliest ages the people of Japan have used fish 
for food, although sometimes the flesh of venison and of birds 
has been eaten. In later years, however, flesh was not much 
used, and fish only was used at each meal, and even those who 
lived in inland towns would send to purchase fish from places 
near the seacoast. 

In '^Yefigishiki" (books of ceremonies written in the 3^ear 
of Yengi A. D. 927) we find the names of fish and other sea 
products which were brought from different provinces to the 
Imperial Culinary Department as tribute. These were for 
the daily use of the Imperial household, or for offerings to 
the gods on holidays. The following is a list of the 
various articles brought and the places from whence they 
came: 

Katsuo, from Shima, Suruga, Sagami, Awa, Kii, Idzu, 
Tosa, Bungo and Awa. Cuttlefish, from Wakasa, Tango, 
Aki, Idzumo, Chikuzen and Buzen. Large sardines, from 
Bitchiu, Bingo, Kii and Sanuki. Hishoko sardines, from 
Bitchiu, Aki and Suwo. Dried beche-de-mer, from Oki, Higo, 
Wakasa, Chikuzen, Shima, Hizen and Noto. Oshiayu, from 
Kii, Bizen, Bitchiu, Bingo, Buzen, Hizen, Higo, Tosa, etc. 
Tai (serranus Marginalis), from Idzumi, Shima, Ise, Sanuki, 
Wakasa, etc. Salmon, from Echigo, Echizen, Tamba, etc. 
Sea ear, from Shima, Awa, Hizen, Higo, Chikuzen, etc. 
Hiuwo, from Yamashiro and Omi. Suzuki, from Yamashiro. 
Aji, from Idzumi. Carp, from Mino. Trout, ameno uwo and 
funa, from Omi. Hara-aka (red breast), from Higo and 
Chikugo. Mackerel, from lyo, Tosa, Suwa and Noto. 
Oysters, from Ise and Higo. Dried cuttlefish, from Higo 
and Sanuki. Dried turtle (terrapin), from Yamato. Crabs, 
from Owari. Different kinds of dried fish, from Owari, 
Mikawa, Kaga and other provinces. And many kinds of 
seaweeds. 

We thus see that many sea products were then used for 
lood and were obtained from man}^ provinces. 

From the last part of the reign of the Fujiwara family to 
the time of the Kamakiira government the dishes used at 
court or at the tables of the Ministers of State consisted 



of carp, tai, sea ear, cuttlefish, crabs, trout, beche-de-mer, 
lobster, oyster, different kinds of shellfish and seaweeds. 

In 1080 Shirakawa Tenno forbade anyone to take the life 
of any living creature, he ordered more than 8,800 fishing nets 
to be burned, put a stop to the tribute of fish, and he himself 
abstained entirely from eating either fish or meat. This he 
did because he was an ardent believer in Buddhism. This 
state of feeling did not last long. 

Passing from the Ashigaga reign to the peaceful days of 
the Tokiigawa, the amount of sea products increased rapidly, 
especially from the year '■'■And'" to "Bt/nsei,'" as the learned 
men talked so much of the importance of protecting and en- 
couraging the fisheries that the governors of different districts 
understood the need of better protective laws, and great im- 
provements were made. 

In the early part of "Meiji" old customs and laws were 
abandoned, every variety of fish was caught without limit and 
the sea products were almost exterminated. Fortunately this 
danger was soon realized and protective laws were again 
reinstated. 

Fishing with line and hook and by casting nets is done 
mostly by men, but cutting seaweeds, carrying salt water to 
manufacture salt, diving into the sea for sea ears and salting 
and drying fish is done mostly by women. 

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF FISHERIES IN DIFFERENT 
PROVINCES. 

Among the sea products, sardines, herring and katsiio are 
the principal varieties of fish and are the most abundant. 
Sardines are caught everywhere on the eastern coast, but the 
best place is Kiijukiiri. Kujukuri (or ninety-nine ri) has a 
coast line of twenty-five ri, extending from Nagasagori in 
Kaziisa province to the promontory of Jnuboe, Shinioisitke prov- 
ince. The whole length of the coast the water is very shoal, 
and when the sea is calm it is a most convenient place for 
casting nets. There are 40,000 inhabitants and more than 
3,000 owners of nets in this fishing village. Men and women 
make their living by this occupation. In May and June, when 
it IS the fishing season, the net profit of every village is over 
1,000 yen. 

103 



During the summer months the seashore presents an 
animated view. Men running hither and thither, casting and 
drawing nets, and women carrying fish home to dry. In Hok- 
kaido or on the Oshiu coast the same scene occurs at the 
herring season. Men, as well as women, go there from Iwate 
Fukushima, Aomori and other districts to earn money. 

On the coast of Tosa, Satsuma, Kii, Ise, Shima, Sagami, 
Awa, Chikuzen and other provinces are found great quanti- 
ties of Katsiio. The men catch the fish and the women stay 
at home and are busily engaged in making katsuo-bitshi. One 
of the most remarkable occupations of the women of certain 
districts is that of diving into the sea for "sea ear" and various 
kinds of seaweeds. Women employed in this occupation are 
called "■Ania.''' 

On the coast of Ise, Shima, Noto, Wakasa and. Oshiu 
there are many '^Ama.'' They dive into the sea to the depth 
of about forty fathoms, search under the water, holding their 
breath for four or five minutes. They take with them a kind 
of chisel, with which they cut off the membrane holding the 
"sea ear" to the rock. As to the seaweeds they are cut off 
from the rocks, and floating to the surface are easily collected. 

The most dangerous work is that of collecting '■Hokoroten''' 
(a seaweed) in April, May, August and September, when the 
weeds are torn from the rocks by the force of the waves. 
"Ama," without the least fear of the storm, go out in parties 
to pick up these weeds. 

Each '■'■Aina''' covering her head with a white cloth and 
tying a tub about her waist, throws herself into the angry waves 
and collects the weeds with a net called ''totta." This is in- 
deed a most exciting scene; it is like a battle, each one 
trying to get ahead of her neighbor in the quantity of weeds 
collected; it is likewise a very dangerous occupation and often 
some of the women are thrown against the rocks and are badly 
bruised. So a doctor from each village is always present and 
cares for those who are injured by any accident. Of these 
" Ama " each one earns as much as five or six yen on a stormy 
day. When their work is done the women of the whole vil- 
lage assemble and make a great feast to which all are invited. 

In places where the women do the most active work the 
rights of the household belong to them. They" have all the 

104 



finances in their hands and make all the bargains relating 
to their work. When the women go out to their special 
labors their husbands or any other man at home does the 
cooking, washing, and even cares for the children. 

As for the men, they are generall}^ inactive, lazy, and 
willingly enough perform their unusual services. When they 
have leisure they amuse themselves with singing or playing 
checks, etc. 

In these districts women are more respected than men, 
and when a girl is born she is welcomed joyfully by the whole 
family. She is brought up with the greatest care, but if 
the child is a boy he is sent away from home to be brought 
up by strangers. His birth is considered a disappointment 
for his parents. 

Other kinds of Industries. 

The industry of our country is the result of constant 
practice for 2,000 years. Both delicate taste and skilled 
handiwork are very remarkable. 

Silk spinning and weaving, embroidery, raised work, 
paper work, bamboo work, and many other things are largely 
done by women. Among the various articles exported to 
foreign countries the most important are the result of women's 
work. These are silk, the yearly production of which amounts 
to over a million kwan; silk goods of over forty million tan, 
silk handerchiefs, embroidered goods and many other orna- 
mental things. 

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THESE INDUSTRIES. 

The arts of spinning and weaving were carried on ex- 
tensively from the earliest ages. The oldest fabrics remain- 
ing are some woven at the time of the Emperor Siiigo, A. D, 
600. Only a few pieces have escaped the ravages of time. 
Those woven at the time of the Nara court in the eighth cen- 
tury are still well preserved. Brocade, silk damask and other 
fabrics were so exquisitely woven, the figures were so artistic 
and the coloring so beautiful, that silks woven in later years 
cannot enter into comparison. A few specimens of these 
beautiful brocades are carefully preserved in the storehouse of 
Shozoin (a storehouse in which precious antiques are kept), at 

105 



JSlanto, and there are some others in the Hoi'htji temple. 
Besides weaving, women excelled in the art of dyeing silk. 
" Rokitsu " means the printing of flowers on silk and other 
fabrics with wax. " Rokitsu " is done in the following man- 
ner: A wooden board is carved with different designs of 
flowers, birds, etc., and the designs are then covered with 
wax. The silk web is then laid between two boards, the 
second one being smooth, and dipped into a dye. The parts 
left undyed, between the boards, are afterwards tastefully 
painted with different colors, such as light purple, dark green, 
scarlet, light yellow, etc. 

Although the origin of weaving and dyeing in these 
methods is not known the term " Shibori " or " Ufuhata " 
seems to have been known as far back as the reign of the 
Empress Jingo (200 A. D.). 

At the time of the Nara court these materials were 
largely used for wearing apparel, also for small carpets or 
rugs. Specimens of these are still seen in the storehouse of 
Shozoin and at other places. Embroidery was done most 
skillfully by the women of those times, and specimens are 
still preserved in a convent attached to the Hormji temple at 
Yaniato. 

An embroidered "Ma/idara of Tenji/koku" finished in the 
year A. D. 623 was the work of a maid of Tachibana no Tai- 
fujin. She di(i this by the order of her mistress. "Mandara'" 
is a picture representing -men and women worshiping Buddha 
in Paradise. 

Another '.^ mandai'a" embroidered b}^ Chujohime, finished 
in the year 676, is kept in the Taema-dera temple in Yamoto. 
Chujohime was a daughter of Udaijin (minister) Toyonari. She 
became a nun in Taema-dera convent during the year of Tem- 
pei-hojo. She devoted her time to embroidering a "mandara," 
more than fifteen feet long, with the delicate fibers of lotus 
stalks. Paradise was most delicately and wonderfully rep- 
resented; unfortunately only a small piece of it is still 
preserved. 

The Empress Danrin made a good many banners and 
embroidered vestments, and sent a priest named Egaku to 
China to present them to the high priests in different temples 
in that country. As these were not embroidered by profes- 

io5 



sional artists it proves that amateurs had great skill in 
such work. 

At the time of the Fiijiwara government, from the ninth 
to the eleventh century, the people of high rank were given 
up to idleness and luxury, and spent their time mostly in 
composing poetry, playing on musical instruments and in 
dancing. , They competed with each other in obtaining magnif- 
icent clothing and in securing the finest 'furniture, orna- 
ments and norimonos (Sedan chairs). These latter were pro- 
fusely ornamented with brocade and silk damask, and also 
inlaid with gold and silver and sometimes precious stones. 

While the nobility were thus indulging themselves in 
indolence and merriment, the common people worked hard 
to supply the demand of the upper classes for these 
elegancies. 

During the period of Ge/igi and Heike (the twelfth cen- 
tury) luxury reached its highest point, and the ladies of the 
court amused their weary hours with painting and making 
hana-musubi (making different kinds of knots of silk cords for 
ornaments). A prayer roll copied by the Heike family is pre- 
served to this day in the storehouse of the Itsiiku-shima. 
This was beautifully done and was offered to the god of the 
temple. It is illuminated so exquisitely that nothing can 
compare with it in the country. The illustrations are said to 
have been the work of Kiyotnori's daughters A. D. 1160. From 
the time of the Kamakura court to the time of the Ashikaga 
family the country was in a state of great disturbance, and 
all kinds of industries were neglected. Among others the 
art of weaving fell into a state of great desuetude, compared 
with its condition under Imperial reigns. 

There is a roll of painting called "71 Shokiiiiin Zukiishi- 
rita awase" (seventy-one workmen with poems), done by a 
noted artist named Tosa Mitsunobii, at the time of Higashi- 
yama Shogun. It represents different kinds of industries and 
the various conditions of the workmen. The women are rep- 
resented as weaving, making sak6, twisting silk cords, sewing 
on kimonos (dresses), stamping figures on cloth or paper, dye- 
ing, etc. 

From the time of the Tokiigawa Shoguns the country was 
in a peaceful state and the population increased year by year; 

107 



the demand for various articles increased in proportion and 
the laboring classes became more prosperous. 

Cotton goods, which were in general use by the common 
people, silk damask, satin, brocade and other materials were 
woven at Kiriit, Hino and other places about the year 1730. 

Before that time all silk fabrics were woven exclusively 
at Nishijin in Kioto. Now "Uktori^^ comes from Akita and 
Siikiaya from Echigo. The skilled weavers of Hakata of 
Chikuzen were removed to Kiriu and Hachioji, and silk crape 
is now woven at Gifu, Mino, Nagahama of Omi, Muneyama 
of Tanabe and Ashikaga of Shimotsuke. 

Women of different provinces have also been famous for 
their skill in making pottery and in gold work. A few 
examples may be of interest: Kane, a daugher of Yokota 
Somin, and Tsune, a daughter of Inagawa Riokoku, were 
noted for their skill in gold work; and Haniejo of Nagasaki 
acquired a great name for her skill in casting. 

Yokoya Sowmin was a famous carver who lived in Yedo 
(Tokio) during the period of Genroku, A. D. 1700. He ob- 
tained the first sketches of his work from the noted artists, 
Kano Tanyu and Hanabusa Itcho, and made the first carvings 
in groups. He also invented "Keboyi'' (carving as fine and 
delicate as a hair). 

Inagawa Riokoku, a pupil of Yanagawa Naomasa, imitated 
the style of Sowmin. He was especially skilled in sketching 
designs to be dyed on Nanako (a soft silk). His daughter 
Tetsu learned the art from her father and was equally cele- 
brated for her skill. Dyeing figures upon "Nanako" is deli- 
cately done by the slender fingers of women, though men often 
get the credit of it. 

Hamejo was a native of Nagasaki. Her father was en- 
gaged in the business of casting. Having no son he taught 
the secret of smelting metals to his daughter. Hamejo was 
very clever and prolific in ideas. In making delicate figures 
in colored copper her work was not equaled by anyone, and 
her name was known far and wide. 

During the year of Eisei (the first part of the sixteenth 
century) a Chinese named Ameya became a citizen of Japan 
and lived in Keishi (Kioto). He changed his name to Sokei 
and made a peculiar kind of earthenware, which was the 

108 



origin of Rakuyaki. After his death his widow became a nun 
{ama), and having learned the art from her husband, began 
making pottery, and the ware she made was called Amayaki. 
In Kioto and other places there are many women who 
employ themselves in making both Rakuyaki and Amayaki, 
producing beautiful tea sets and many ornamental articles. 

PRESENT CONDITION OF INDUSTRIES IN DIFFERENT 
PROVINCES. 

Various articles belonging to the "fine arts" are made 
in all of the principal cities of Japan. Kioto is celebrated for 
the manufacture of silk brocade, silk damask and velvet, also 
" Shuchin" (silk specially designed for i^/;/j-), different kinds 
of gold brocade Yuzenzome (goods dyed in various colors), 
embroidery, raised work, artificial flowers, pottery, lacquer 
work, copper work, fans, etc. 

Tokyo is noted for colored printing, round fans, small 
books, lacquer work, earthenware, mosaic work, gold and 
tortoise shell work, etc. 

Nagoya is famous for mosaic work and earthenware, and 
Kanazawa for earthenware, copper work and inlaid work of 
gold and silver. Women are constantly employed in all 
these productions belonging to the fine arts. The women of 
Kyoto are famous for the skill of their handiwork and great 
varieties of ornamental things are made by ladies of nobility; 
these have a peculiar delicacy and beauty, as the art of mak- 
ing them has been handed down from ancient work done for 
pleasure by the ladies of the palace or in the houses of the 
nobility. 

The embroidered handkerchiefs which are exported by 
the thousands are largely done by women. 

In the cities are large rooms where they work together, 
and often thousands are engaged in the work. A large house 
in Sendai, Miyagi-Ken, others at Fukui, Fukui-Ken, Uji and 
Yamada of Miye-Ken, are in the most flourishing condition. 
Besides these workrooms women do much of this work at 
their own homes. 

In Arita of Hizen many women are engaged in painting 
on earthenware. Some artists employ several women to 
assist them and those who are clever can make a good living. 

log 



The most important employments of women are silk 
spinning and weaving. Gumma, Tochigi, Fukushina, Saita- 
ma, Kanagawa, Nagano, Miyagi, Iwate, Yamagata, Yamana- 
shi, Shiga, Gifu and other Ken are the silk districts. 

The women of these districts work at their own homes or 
in the silk factories. 

In the little town of Suwa in Shinshiu there are more 
than forty silk factories and several hundred women are em- 
ployed in them. Girls earn more in the factories than they 
can earn when hired as servants, so in the vicinity of the 
factories it is frequently difficult to get domestics for house- 
hold labors. Sometimes men are hired in the place of women 
or families send to other provinces for servants. 

Kofu of Yamanashi, Uyeda and Suwa of Shinano have 
theaters and other places of amusement. These are almost 
empty on working days, but on holidays they are filled with 
thousands of women whose presence more than repay the loss 
felt during the working days; this one fact shows the flourish- 
ing condition of the industry of women. 

Some kinds of cloth have been famous from the most 
ancient times as: Nishijin ori (cloth) of Kioto; bleached 
cotton of Yamato, of Nagahama; crapes and mosquito netting 
of Omi; Uyeaa ori of Shinshiu; Matsiizaka cotton of Ise; 
Kai-silk of Kai, Choshi-cliijima (a kind of corrugated cloth); 
and Yuki tsuWiugi (pongee), of Shimosa; Chichibu silk of 
Musashi Sendahira of Rikuzen; Nmnbu ori of Rikuchiu; silk 
goods of Kotsuke; Ashikaga silk of Shimotsuke; Yonezawa 
ori oi Ugo; A kit a ori of Uzen, Echigo Chijimi of Echigo; Hosho 
tsumugi of Etchiu; Kaga silk of Kaga; Unsai ori of Mimasaka; 
hemp canvas of Harima; Hakata ori oi Chikuzen; Kokura ori 
of Buzen; Kasuri of Satsuma; Riu-kiu tsumugi, and cloth 
woven of the plaintain fibers of the Loochu islands; Hachijo 
tsumugi of Hachijo island; and cotton from every part of the 
country. 

In later years futako cotton, Ichiraku, Hattan, Gasuori 
and other goods have been woven in the vicinity of Yokohama 
(Hachioji is the principal place). Various kinds of cotton 
flannel are also woven at Kishiu and Osaka. 

The amount of silk goods from the northeastern 
provinces and the different provinces of the Nakasendo has 



greatly increased, and new materials of various kinds are 
made every year. The methods of weaving, the rate of 
women's wages, customs, habits, etc., differ somewhat in dif- 
ferent provinces. 

In Kodzuke and Shimotsuke all the inhabitants are en- 
gaged in weaving. In every house is a loom; there are also 
places called " Oriya " (factories) where many women are 
hired to weave together. In these districts girls 6 or 7 years 
of age are sent to the " Oriya" as apprentices. Their term 
is for five years. Ten yen is given to their fathers or brothers 
at the time the contract is made. During these five years the 
apprentices are fed and clothed by their masters. When the 
term of contract is over they will receive wages of about 25 
sen each day, if their skill is worth that amount. Among 
these girls are two good habits: one is they give the wages 
they receive to their parents, brothers or husbands, not wast- 
ing their money as freely as is done in some other districts. 
.Girls here do not need to make provision for their wedding 
portions as do the girls of other places, so they do not hoard 
up their money. They apply themselves diligently to their 
work and try to become skilled because skill in weaving is a 
good marriage portion, and those who possess it are sought 
for by wealthy families. These customs contribute greatly to 
the flourishing state of these provinces. 

The women weavers are generally very industrious. They 
rise with the sun and begin their work, never leaving the looms 
during the day, and the evenings they usually spend in spinning. 

When a girl reaches the age of 7 or 8 years she is 
made to take care of the younger children, and at the same 
time she helps in weaving and other things. 

Weaving mats, making paper toys and all articles used 
for the toilet is the work of women. Mats are manufactured 
in Bungo, Riukiu, Buzen, Chikuzen, Satsuma, Higo and other 
provinces of Kiushiu; also are brought from Bingo, Aki, 
Suwo, Omi, Mino, Shinano, etc. 

The floors of our houses are covered with mats that are 
woven from the stalks of rushes called ji, and the demand for 
them is very great. 

The mats are sewed to frames made of straw; the frames 
are about 2}^ inches thick, 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. 



Preparing the rushes for the mats, making flaxen thread with 
which to weave them, and much of the weaving itself is all 
done by women. 

PAPER MANUFACTURES. 

The amount of paper manufactured in different parts of 
the country is enormous. Chiugoku, Shikoku and Kiushiu 
have each a large paper factory. 

There are some differences in the details of the manu- 
facture of paper, varying with the locality and the nature of 
the plant, but the general method employed is as follows: 
The Kozo plants (Broussonetia papyrifera) are cut into lengths 
of about three feet and are then steamed in a large boiler; the 
bark is peeled off and boiled in lye, and after keeping it in 
water for some time is well pounded; then this pulp is mixed 
with a certain amount of diluted mucilage made from the root 
of the " tororo " (Hibiscus) and is steeped in a wooden tank. 
When it has remained long enough it is spread out into sheets 
by means of a sieve. As soon as the water has drained offj 
each sheet, with the aid of a straw brush, is transferred to 
boards to dry. 

This kind of work is done both by men and women, but 
the latter are by far the best workers. 

More recently hundreds of women and girls are employed 
in the Oji and Yokkaichi paper mills, where machinery is used 
for making paper from straw and wood pulp. 

Toys for children, flower hairpins, ornamental combs, 
hair ornaments, scent-bags, and much other fine work are 
made by the women of Tokio, Kioto and Nagoya. The most 
lucrative employments for women are dressmaking (kimonos), 
washing and starching; and many women make good livings 
in these ways. In cities some childless women or widows 
work in dry goods shops. In the country, women generally 
dress their own hair, but in the cities there are professional 
women hairdressers who go around to different houses to 
dress the hair artistically, and even servants employ 
hairdressers. 

MINING. 

In the mining districts much of the work is done by the 
women, especially in separating the minerals from the ores. 
This needs a delicacy of touch which women possess in a high 



degree. In the copper mines of Ashio in Shimotsuke, Kusa- 
kura and Omoya of Echigo, Ani of Ugo, Osaruzawa of Riku- 
chiu, etc., and in the silver mines of Aikawa of Sado, 
Handa of Iwashiro, Innai of Ugo, Osaka and Kami of Riku- 
chiu, etc., women are largely engaged in such work. 

Girls from seven to eight years old are sent early to the 
working places to see the elder girls at work so that when 
twelve years are reached they also can earn six sen each da3^ 

The wages received varies according to the age and skill 
of each worker. 

At the Sado gold mines a good workwoman can earn 
more than twent3^-five sen a day. It is wonderful to see how 
rapidly they distinguish one mineral from another, the sense 
of touch in the tips of the fingers being their only guide. 

Once an experiment was made to see if there would be 
more profit if a machine was used for this work, so one was 
purchased from some foreigners and a trial was made. The 
machine was expected to do the work of several hundred 
women's days work in less than four hours; but, strange to say, 
it was found that the delicacy and skill of the women's fingers 
far surpassed the work of the machine, and the sum of the 
women's wages was no greater than the amount paid when 
the work was done by the machine. This incredible result 
caused them to throw aside the machine and again employ 
women. This proves the dexterity of women's fingers. 

TRADE. 

Women have never taken a very active part in trade. 
Firms who have several stores or wealthy merchants, do not 
permit women to serve in the shops, but in the smaller retail 
shops men go out to do the buying and let their wives and 
daughters do the selling; as they are more amiable and more 
liable to attract customers. 

Although women do not engage much in active business, 
the name of ''HisagP' (the saleswoman) has been known from 
the most ancient times. 

In the year of Taiho, A. D. 702, a public notice was given 
in regard to trade. It said, "Men and women must have seats 
apart from each other in those shops that sell anything on the 

113 



street." This notice shows that women had taken some trade 
into their hands. 

We often read in tales and other writings about women 
selling things in the street during the year of Engi. In Ut- 
subo-Monogatari (one of the most ancient tales), it says, ''The 
women who keep shops on the street, buy from ihe carts fish 
and salt, and arrange them for sale." Again, from the time of 
the Fujiwara family to the latter part of the Kamakiu-a Sho- 
guns, women must have been engaged in buying and selling. 
In the roll of painting called "Nenjiigiogi Emaki" (which 
shows all the occurrences of the period), painted by Mitsu- 
naga, Gas hi Zasshi of Nobuzane Kasiiya Goiigen Kenki and 
Ishiyama Engi, and others; we can see in many of the sketches 
women engaged in trade, selling dry goods and various 
things; also some carrying eatables on their heads and selling 
them. 

From the last part of the power of the Kamakura Sho- 
guns to the reign of the Ashikaga family the whole country 
was like a great battlefield, and all communication between 
the cities and provinces was entirely cut off. The consequence 
was trade suffered exceedingly. 

During this warlike period every class, the samurai (mili- 
tary class), the farmers, and even the lower classes, were ob- 
liged to fight or do some kind of warlike service away from 
home. • 

The women, while they cared for their homes during the 
absence of their husbands, must necessarily have cultivated 
the fields, spun and wove, and traded in order to make a liv- 
ing. This must have induced women to engage in trade, and 
they have continued it until this day. 

In the "roll of 71 workmen" (mentioned before), many 
trades are represented by women, such as sellers of rice, peas, 
linen, cotton, lacquer, fans, obi (sashes), powder, rouge, etc. 
Also fish women, basket carriers, and many other small 
trades are represented in these pictures. 

When the Tokugawa Shogun built a castle at Yedo 
(Tokyo), in the period of Genlva, the whole country was in a 
state of quietness and peace. Population increased year by 
year, and agriculture and commerce became prosperous; but 
along with this came idleness and luxury for the higher classes. 

114 



The women of the capital spent their time in amusing them 
selves in music and dancing. They neglected their duties and 
did not exert themselves as they did in the time of war. 

After the Revolution of Meiji, 1868, many Samurai 
families went into trade, and the women were often much 
occupied in helping their husbands. 

Now, we see shops of toilet articles, earthenwares, dried 
fish, vegetables, clothes, clogs, umbrellas, tobacco, cakes and 
different kinds of sweets, thread, toys, etc., kept by women, 
who are very energetic and clever at the business. 

In some country places tea houses and other little shops 
are kept entirely by women, who at the same time spin and 
care for the house during the absence of their husbands, who 
are busy in cultivating the land and other work. In the 
bazaars of the different cities women wait upon the customers, 
and generally the hotels, restaurants, boat houses and tea 
houses have female servants, and the owner of many of the 
above is often a woman. 

Besides these there are traveling saleswomen in different 
districts. 

In Osaka are kombu (seaweed) sellers. This seaweed 
is brought from Hokkaido and prepared for sale in Osaka. 
Women in parties of five to ten travel around the country 
selling this seaweed and share the losses or gains. Some- 
times one woman hires several others and goes round with 
them superintending the selling. Another kind of seaweed 
called " Nori" is sold in the same manner. 

If we were to speak more in detail of the productive 
occupations of women our readers would become weary; 
enough has been said to fully show that more than one-half 
of the labor in our "country" is done by the women. 



115 



~--.^«J 







'/ 

M' 



CHAPTER VII. 

ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF JAPANESE 
WOHEN. 



These may be classified under the general heads of 
Poetry, Painting, Tea Ceremonies, Incense Burning, Floral 
Arrangements and Music. In the old methods of education 
these six accomplishments were taught to all girls more or less 
as a means of improving their morals and manners. 

It is thought that the mind is enlarged by the study 
of poetry and painting, as "Learning the new by searching 
the old " is a well known proverb. 

In the practice of the tea ceremony good manners and 
politeness are supposed to be inculcated. In floral arrange- 
ments and incense burning girls are taught to understand the 
value of tranquility and calmness. In this manner the ideas 
of women are brought to a higher condition and they become 
more anxious to improve. 

As music is the most refined of all accomplishments it 
will be described in detail, together with the various instru- 
ments in use, both in the past and present periods of time. 

Music. 

There are four kinds of music in use at present in Japan, 
viz.: Classical, European, Chinese and popular music. 

I. CLASSICAL MUSIC. 

By clasical music we mean the original Japanese music 
and the Chinese and Corean which were introduced about 
one thousand years ago. Not much later a school of music 
was established at the Court and all Court musicians were 
obliged to learn both the original and the imported 

117 



music. The different styles have been handed down to the 
present generation of Court musicians. Although, these pe- 
culiar styles of imported music have entirely passed away in 
their native countries they are still in use in Japan. 

In the original Japanese music great use was made of 
metrical verses or words, while in the Chinese and Corean 
music dancing took the principal place rather than words. 
The instruments are of great variety. Classical music is con- 
sidered very elegant but is rarely learned by women. 

II. EUROPEAN MUSIC. 

European music was brought into this country in 1879 
or '80. The instruments now in use are the organ, piano, 
violin, cornet and violoncello. Some music is sung with Jap- 
anese words united to the foreign notes, and some musical 
pieces are composed according to the European scale and 
played upon the koto, samisen and other Japanese instru- 
ments. The latter method is now taught in different schools. 

In this connection we must mention the name of an ex- 
perienced American music teacher, Mr. L. W. Mason, who 
was employed by the Department of Education to teach 
music in the new academy of music established in 1880. He 
adapted old Japanese airs to the foreign scale and accom- 
plished a great deal for the development of school music. 

The methods of teaching are similar to those of the 
West, so a description of that detail is quite unnecessary. 

III. CHINESE MUSIC. 

This music has lately been introduced into this country 
and is sung in the Chinese language, accompanied by Gekkin, 
Kokiu, Teikin (all stringed instruments), and is very popular 
among ladies. 

The Chinese scale with the different pronunciations is 
appended: 

Jan, cha, kon, han, rin, sin, i, jan. 

tee ha 

do re mi fa sol la si do. 

There are two styles of Chinese music. Nagasaki and 
Keian styles. Although they differ in regard to time and 
movement they are one in origin. 

118 



IV. POPULAR MUSIC. 

Popular music is in contrast to classical music, and is 
very generally understood. This includes many different 
styles, but those that are mostly studied by girls are Koto 
music, Nagauta (long verse); Koitt-a (short verse or folk 
song) dind Jorurt (a kind of operatic music). 

As to the subjects of the composition, they differ very 
much. Some are interesting old narratives set to music, 
while others are descriptions of the four seasons. Some are 
congratulations on the long continued reign of the sovereign 
or on the prosperity of relatives and friends. Others are ad- 
dressed to a hero protecting the orphan of his Lord against 
an enemy and thereby risking his own 'life; or to a delicate 
woman, who, although pursued by poverty and suffering ever 
preserves her virtue; or to some intrepid hero (chevalier), 
who, while protecting the weak, or chastening the strong, at 
last sacrifices his own life. 

Such tales as these are sung accompanied by various in- 
struments and make a deep impression upon the minds of the 
listeners. 

Again, some are love stories which show the fulfillment 
of virtue when prompted by affection; there are often short 
verses composed impromptu about ordinary things seen or 
heard, and which deeply affect the mind. 

As a matter of course, when the meaning differs, the 
music must necessarily change. Again, when the styles differ, 
the same music is played somewhat differently. 

A short account of the different instruments used in play- 
ing popular music, the use of the scales, harmony, and the 
different methods of teaching may not be uninteresting. 

DIFFERENT MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

The instruments used in popular music are of three 
kinds: Stringed instruments, such as the koh^, saniisen and 
kokiii; reed instruments, such as the fl/tte dixxdshaki/ Jiachi; and 
leather instruments, as the drum, tsuzumi, both large and small. 

The koto is made of the wood of the paullownia-imperi- 
ahs; it is hollow inside and has thirteen strings spread over its 
whole length of about six feet four inches, the breadth at 
the head is about nine inches, narrowing a little towards the 

119 



foot. Each string is supported by a movable bridge, by 
which the instrument is turned and it is played with the 
fingers shielded by ivory half-thimbles on the thumb, first and 
second fingers of the right hand. 

If the koto is accompanied by the sainisen and kokiu it is 
often called "the musical trio," and if the shakuhachi is added 
it produces very good harmony, and is very enjoyable in the 
open air, under the trees, amid blossoms, or in the beautiful 
moonlight. 

The koto first came from China and was called So, and was 
generally learned by ladies of high rank. 

There are several varieties of the "Koto'' as ^'ichigenkin'" 
(one stringed 'koX.o),^" Ntgenkin'" and "Yakmnogoto'' (both two 
stringed kotos). The first two are sometimes accompanied by 
the samisen. As the latter is our original instrument, and is 
played only to glorify the gods, so the words or verses are very 
much like a hymn and are considered a sacred music. There- 
fore it is incumbent upon performers to cleanse their mouths 
and wash their hands before beginning to play. 

The "Sa?nise?i" consists of three parts, the head, the neck 
and the body. The length is about three feet and it is made 
of a hard wood called kwarin (quince) or shitan. The body 
has a prepared cat's skin stretched over it on both sides. The 
three strings are attached to the instrument from the bottom 
of the body to the head by means of pegs. 

The form of the samisen and the manner of playing it is 
somewhat like the guitar; the differences are that the shape of 
the saviiseii is nearly square, while that of the guitar is nearly 
round, and while the latter is played with the fingers the 
former is played upon with a ''bachi'" (a peculiar kind of broad 
stick). 

The strings of the samisen are made of silk, decreasing in 
size from the ist to the 3d. The samisen is the instrument 
most generally in use. "Nagauta,'' ''Koutd" and "'J^oruri'''' 
(three different styles of singing) are always accompanied 
by it. When played with the koto it is the auxiliary instru- 
ment; the kokiu and the shakahachi are also auxiliary instru- 
ments to either the koto or the samisen; and also the flute, 
drums and the large and small tsuziimi. For singing joniri 
no other instrument is used except the samisen. The history 



of the samisen is very uncertain. Some say that it came 
originally from the Loo-choo islands in the period of Enroku, 
and was then call£d jabisen (covered with a snakeskin called 
ja). A blind musician named Nakanokoji used it at first. 
It had then but two strings, he added another string, and in- 
stead of the cover of snakeskin he used a prepared cat's 
skin, consequently the wdLVH^ja-bi-soi was changed to samisen. 
This account is, however, denied by some writers, as in old 
books written before that period the word samisen is mentioned. 

There is reason to believe that the samisen did not come 
from either Korea or the Loo-choo Islands. The probability 
is that it was brought here by the Portuguese from some more 
southern country. Such musical instruments are now seen in 
India and in the neighboring countries. 

The Kokiu is also said to have come from the Loo-choo 
Islands, as well as the samisen. It was originally called 
^^ Rabeca,'''' which is a Portuguese word, and is the same as 
"Rebec" in English. 

This was no doubt a Moorish musical instrument, and 
made its way into Spain and Portugal and thence into the 
different countries of Europe, and thus through the Portu- 
guese found its way into Japan, about three hundred years 
ago. Originally it had but two strings, but string after string 
was added, until out of it was evolved the present violin; thus 
the kokiu and the violin may have had the same origin. The 
samisen and the kokiu are the same in form, only the kokiu is a 
little smaller. 

The samisen is played with a " bachi,'" while the kokiu is 
played with a bow, and we do not know how long since this 
difference existed. 

The kokiu and the violin are both played with bows, only 
the former is not held under the chin, but is held vertically 
upon the lap by the left hand. 

The shaku hachi and the flute are both made of bamboo. 
The former is played Hke a cornet. Both are played by men 
and very seldom by women. 

' THE DRUM AND THE LARGE AND SMALL TSUZUML 

The drum is placed upon a kind of frame or stand and is 
beaten with two drum-sticks. The large tsuzumi is placed upon 



the left knee and the small tsuzumi upon the right shoulder. 
Both are supported by the left hand and are beaten by the 
right hand put closely together. 

If both large and small tsiizitmi are played by a single 
person at the same time the positions of the instruments are 
not changed, only the large tsiizuvn is held by the left elbow 
being placed upon the left knee, while the small tsuzumi is 
placed upon the right shoulder held by the left hand. Then 
both are alternately beaten by the right fingers, the hand being 
carried up and down very rapidly. 

The small tsuzimii has a silk cord attached to the instru- 
ment. The sound may be changed to a greater or less volume 
by tightening or loosening this cord with the left hand while 
holding the instrument upon the right shoulder. 

As in other countries, drums are only used as auxiliary 
instruments for giving tune and activity to other music. In 
nagauta and kouta they are used as auxiliaries, but never as 
chief instruments. 

THE SCALES OF POPULAR MUSIC. 

The scales of popular music follow those of classical 
music and are of twelve semi-tones (chromatic action-scale). 
But in popular music the minor scale is generally used. 

There are three ways of tuning the samisen in general 
use: They are "77"^?;/r/z^^/z/ " (standard), "A'/ai^^r/ " (2d string 
higher), and ^ ' Sans agar i^' (3d string lower). 

The following are the three ways of tuning: 

"honchoshl" 

do fa do 

ist string, 2d string, 3d string, 

"Niagm'i" (2d string higher). 

do sol do 

ist string. 2d string, 3d string, 

"Sajisagari" (3d string lower). 

do fa si 

1st string, 2d string, 3d string. 

Alterations or variations of the melody may occur in the 
midst of a composition, ixora'-'-Honchoshi''^ to either '^Niagari''' 
or '■'■Sansa^ari''' or vice versa. 



When more than two sai/iise/is are played together, one 
or two may play different notes, putting in some additional 
notes now and then, thus making the music more harmoni- 
ous and interesting. This is called " Uwajos/ii," while the 
ordinary mode of playing is called "Honjamisen.'' 

To play "Uwajosht,'" a piece of wood, ivory or tortoise- 
shell about one inch long called "Kase" is tied by a string to 
the neck of the samisen, five or six inches below the head 
(somewhat like a "dumb" on a violin, but this serves to make 
the note higher). 

If '■'honjamisen'" be of "hoiic/ioshi'' the '^i/wajoshi" must be 
tuned ''niagari," if the former be "niagari" the latter must be 
"■^sansagarir the first string of the '^invajoshi'" must always be 
tuned to the same tone as the second of the "Iio/ijauiisen y 
The different ways of tuning the koto are ^'Kin?ioi,'" ^'■Hira- 
;os/it" and a few others. The theory of music was formerly 
not studied as much as practical performance upon various 
instruments. (See pages 124, 125, 126.) 

THE METHODS OF TEACHING POPULAR MUSIC, REVIEWS AND 
CONCERTS. 

Girls usually begin to study popular music from the 
age of 6 and 7. Although from quite early times a certain 
kind of notation existed, it is not in general use. There- 
fore pupils have nothing to rely upon but their memories 
and the constant practice of the ear and the hand. An 
example of the methods of teaching by a "Nagaiiicf teacher 
will illustrate. 

A simple melody is selected and the beginner is made to 
sing with the teacher until the words are well learned. Then 
the teacher hands a samisen to the pupil. Now the samisen 
has no note board as on a guitar or on a Chinese Gekkin, so 
there is no indication of the manner of playing upon the in- 
strument; the teacher therefore holds the fingers of the pupil 
and carries them up and down on the neck of the sai/iise/i till 
the melody is well learned. Then the teacher sitting oppo- 
site to the pupil plays and sings the whole over and over 
until perfectly satisfied with the result. What an amount of 
patience must be possessed both by the teacher and pupil! 
Without great effort for several years no skill can be acquired. 

123 






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With koto music almost the same process is necessary; 
bdt on this instrument, as each string has a settled tone, if it 
be once tuned, it is not so difficult to learn as the saiitisen. 

The music teachers hold reviews or concerts once or 
twice each season. This is to give pupils an opportunity to 
exhibit their skill. Other teachers and pupils are invited and 
by hearing solos played and choruses sung much emulation 
is excited and all present are improved by the exercise of 
their talents. 

THE CHANGES AND PROGRESS OF MUSIC, DANCING AND THE 

DRAMA. 

This is the present condition of popular music. As for 
its changes and progress from early times we cannot minutely 
describe them in this brief account. Singing and dancing 
have been practiced in Japan from very early times, but after 
an importation from China and Corea, our original styles 
were forgotten. Imported music is not only preserved in its 
original form, but has also been changed in many ways. 
Some melodies have been composed according to the taste of 
our people, making use of foreign instruments. In the book 
of laws called '^Tathorei,'" finished in the eighth-century, we 
find the following: " Gagakurio, the 'Institute of Music,' was 
established at the court, and the music of China, Koma, Ku- 
dara, Shiragi and Kure were taught." 

"Our original music consisted of songs and dances. 
Theirefore thirty men singers, loo women singers and loo 
dancers were placed in the Institute." 

The only instrument used for Japanese music was the 
flute, but in Chinese music there were several instruments, as 
the sho (flute), kuko (kind of harp), so (koto), biwa, ' hokei, 
(stone gongs), drums, shaku-hachi, hichiriki (a kind of haut- 
boy), etc. 

The music taught in this Institute was mostly used on 
great ceremonial occasions at the Court and is generally called 
" Ga ga-ku " (classical music), and many of those melodies 
have come down to the. present day. Among the Chinese 
instruments in general use were the flute, sha kti-hachi, So or 
koto, biwa, etc. The two latter were chiefly played by the 
ladies. As this music came into general use new tunes with 

127 



verses were composed. The " Saibara'' and '^ Kagiira''' 
dances may be dated from the ninth century. Besides thefee 
dances, which belonged to classical music, there were other 
kinds of dances and sports, such as " Sangahi" 3ind " Den- 
gaku.'" Ihe former, also called "■ Sarugakii,'^ was a funny 
kind of play, and was the beginning of the comic drama 
(ninth centur)^). In the last part of the fourteenth century 
this was changed to a peculiar kind of song and musical per- 
formance of Kanze and Komparii styles (the No dance of the 
present time). " Dengakii,'^ originally a kind of rustic music, 
was mixed with comedies of Sangaku (twelfth century) and 
became very popular, and the professionals called " Dengaku- 
hoshi" began to appear. 

Although women did not take part in comic performances 
they used to dance in men's clothes and were called "Shira- 
bioshi''' or Otoko-7nai, which became very popular about the 
twelfth century. 

In the last part of the tenth century there were blind men 
who told historical narratives, accompanied by the Biwa. 

After the war between the Genji and the Heike families 
these blind musicians used to tell of the events that took place 
during the battles. So eagerly were these stories received 
that the name of "Heike''' was given to the performance. 

In the first part of the twelfth century new religious sects 
sprung up. B}»prayers, accompanied with singing and dancing, 
and sometimes with a certain kind of theatrical perform- 
ance, these sects tried to attract the attention of the pe'ople 
and make them interested in religion. There were also priests 
who preached sermons and sung narratives in songs to interest 
their audiences. From this a peculiar kind of sermon origi- 
nated. Later this was changed to the odes, lectures, war 
stories, witticisms, etc., of the present day. From these ser- 
mons and the '^ Heike'' sprung up the Joruri (sixteenth 
century). It is commonly believed that Ono-710 Otsii (an 
attendant of the famous Hideyoshi) was the originator of the 
story, but there is evidence that it was known before her time. 

^'■Joruri'' was the name of a lady in the story, and as the 
incidents recited or sung were greatly appreciated by the 
people, her name was given to the music just as the name 
''^ Heike'' was given to a somewhat similar performance. 

128 



Since then ^'JoriirC has been greatly improved by being 
sung with the samisen, and new tunes with different ideas 
have been composed. Great composers began to appear and 
many different styles were formed, such as Gidaiu, Itchiii, 
Kato, Shinnai, Kiyo77ioto, Tokiwazu, etc. There are many 
women who make their living by playing ^'Joriiriy 

In the last part of the sixteenth century theatrical per- 
formances were undertaken by women, and as a woman 
named Okuni ^nzs the originator it was called "Okimi llieatre.''' 
A change was made here from the dancing prayers and other 
musical plays. {No-kiogen.') The women's theatre, however, 
was prohibited in the seventeenth century and young men 
took their place, and this custom continues to the present day. 
The story of "Joruri " was at first represented by using dolls 
(as marionettes), but from the year 1700 the actors performed 
themselves. Although the prohibition was taken off from 
actresses they were not allowed to play on the same stage as 
the men, so young actors have to take the parts of women, 
and do so with great skill. Although women do not perform 
on the public stage, yet there are many lady dancing teachers 
and dancing girls who entertain people at parties and dance 
and sing before large numbers. 

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF DANCING. 

As dancing accompanied by koto music represents the 
meaning of the songs, so some dances are of elegant char- 
acter, and are called "Mai ;'" while others are of a lower 
order and are called "Odori," of which there are two kinds; 
one consists of movements of the hands and feet, somewhat 
like European pantomime. In the other kind words are 
spoken, accompanied by movements. Each movement repre- 
sents the meaning of the words, and the spectators are moved 
by feelings of sadness, anger and mirth. If well danced, 
hand-clapping or other signs of applause indicate the pleasure 
of the audience. Girls learn the "odori^^ dances from six to 
about nineteen, and no girl over that age dances unless she is 
a teacher. Until about twenty years ago physical training 
was much neglected, gymnastic exercises for girls were un- 
known, and ladies were mostly engaged in sedentary occu- 
pations. Now many parents have their daughters taught 

129 



^'odori'^ to develop their physical strength, besides it is thought 
that girls who have practiced dancing acquire more grace in 
their movements. These are some of the reasons why so 
many girls are now learning "odori.'''' 

When girls dance the "odoj'i^^ on ordinary occasions they do 
so in their usual dresses, but when they have a dancing per- 
formance it is upon a stage with a curtain and other theatri- 
cal accessories, such as artificial hair and costumes to repre- 
sent certain characters. Recently European dancing has be- 
come quite fashionable among the higher classes. 

In some parts of the country there are women who dance 
sacred dances in the temples. There is still another kind of 
dancing very popular in country places, somewhat like that of 
Dengaku. This is danced from the 13th to the i6th of July. 
Young men and women go out to the fields in the evening. 
Here they foim a large circle, a leader who is a good singer 
is selected among them, who sings the first verse, all the others 
joining in the chorus, clapping their hands or moving them to 
the right or left, or marching up and down following the 
singer, thus reminding one a little of a quadrille or a country 
dance. 

The Tea Ceremony. 

The tea ceremony, usually called Cha-no-yu is the art of 
making tea an(f serving it to invited guests. Sometimes din- 
ner and sake are also served. The ceremony of offering these 
viands is attended with great solemnity, as there are certain 
rules for every movement of the hands and feet which must 
be strictly observed. But even this solemnity indicates great 
respect, and host, as well as guests, must pay strict attention 
to every little point of etiquette. The principal virtue to be 
observed is kindness, as anyone who is carefully taught in 
the tea ceremony is trained to gentleness and will naturally 
learn to be cautious. This is one of the reasons why women 
were required to learn this accomplishment. 

Cha-no-yu had its origin at the time of the Ashikaga 
government and it has flourished ever since the time of the 
Shogiin Yoshimasa. The special rules or ceremonies were not 
settled until the time of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (^"Taiko''^). An 
attendant of the '■^Taiko " named Sen-no-Rikiu, who was also 

130 



a professor of the tea ceremony, compiled many rules and they 
have been handed down to the present day. 

The tea ceremony has passed through some changes, so 
that many styles have been fashionable from time to time. 
The style which originated with Rikiii was called Senke style, 
from this came both Omote Senke and Ura Senke. Oribe, 
Yabu-uchi, Enshiu and Sekishu styles are the subdivisions of 
these with more or less changes in each, but in all are the 
same principles. 

Usu-cha (weak tea) and Koi-cha (^strong tea). Koi-cha is 
obtained from the buds of the tea plant picked at the time of 
the first crop; the Usu-cha is the buds of the second crop. 
Both have to go through a certain process to be made fit to 
drink, and must also be reduced to a powder in tea grinders 
or tea mills. 

The best tea is obtained from the village of Uji in 
Yamashiro. 

The ceremony for both Koi-cha and Usu-cha differs in 
some points. The marked difference is that it is more com- 
plicated in Koi-cha than in the Usu-cha. In Koi-cha only 
one cup of tea is served by the host to a number of guests 
and each one after sipping a few mouthfuls passes the cup to 
his neighbor and so on; in Usit-ciia the host serves to each 
guest a cup in turn. 

THE CHA-NOYU OR TEA ROOM. 

The tea room is built very small (generally of four and a 
half mats), the ceiling is low, the entrance narrow and low and 
all the finish must be simple, although elegant in style. The 
ornaments consist of a hanging picture {kakemono'), an incense 
burner, flower vase, and there may be one or two small 
bronzes. A fire place called a ro is cut in the floor about 
fourteen inches square, it is made of stone, and a fire-dog 
called gotoku is placed in the ashes, upon which a kettle is put. 

In building a tea room great care is taken in regard to the 
choice of timber for the pillars or supporters of the iokononia 
(recess). For these the wood is sometimes left with the bark 
on and sometimes highly polished after the bark has been 
removed. Neither paint nor other ornamentation is used. If 
possible, timber of some rare wood is used and a large sum of 

131 



money is frequently paid for only a single pillar. The garden 
attached to the tea room must be arranged by the hands of a 
skillful gardener who makes a specialty of this kind of garden. 

THE ARTICLES USED. 

The tea utensils are of many kinds. By a very slight 
difference of shape different names are given to the same 
things. This is owing to the desire for old-fashioned things. 
For example, calling a certain kind of tea ladle " Sojiin's tea 
ladle," or a spoon ^^Rikiu's spoon," etc. But it must be 
understood that competition in luxury was not the true object 
of the tea ceremony. The following are the necessary articles 
used in or for '■'■Cha-no-yii:''' 

1. A portable furnace made of pottery, brass or of iron, 
is used from the ist of May to the end of October. At other 
times the ro is opened. 

2. Kettles or pots for boiling water, are of many vari- 
eties, but all are of iron, often highly ornamented. 

3. Charcoal holder or scuttle, made of bamboo, or a box 
made of wisteria vine, or any kind of wood that one prefers. 

4. Gotokii, a three-legged iron stand to support the 
kettle over the fire. The one used in the portable furnace 
differs from that used in ro. 

5. Kettle mats; paper is properly used, but sometimes 
mats made of split rattan or interlaced wood are used. 

6. Feather brush. 

7. Water jar, either of porcelain or of copper. 

8. Incense burner, of porcelain, wood without paint, 
lacquer or of copper. 

9. Cup, of many varieties. 

10. Napkin or tea towel, of silk, usually of purple, red 
or of tea color. 

11. Teaspoon, of bamboo, ivory or of lacquer work. 

12. Koboshi, a vessel to pour the hot water into, made of 
porcelain, copper or of wood. 

13. Flower vase; the vase to be set on the floor and the 
one to be hung up on a nail are of porcelain or of copper; 
the vase when hung by a string from the ceiling is of copper. 

14. Tea jar, of lacquer or of earthenware of either Jap- 
anese or of Chinese workmanship. These jars have different 

132 



names according to the shape and material. For instance, 
"■ natsiime " is of lacquer, the shape resembling natsiime (dates). 
There are others called kawataro, goke fubuki, nakatsugi, etc. 

15. Coverings or bags for the tea sets of silk brocade, 
satin and other old fabrics. 

16. Cover supporter, of a bamboo ring or earthenware, 
also of copper made in shapes of dolls or crabs, etc. 

17. A tea stirrer made of bamboo, split at one end and 
made to stir the powdered tea in the hot water. 

1 8. Daisu, cabinet, generally of fine old lacquer or shelves 
for packing away the tea sets. 

THE RULES OF CHA-NO-YU. 

The rules of Cha-no-yu are not alike in different styles. 
When the portable furnace is used the ceremony differs from 
that when ro is used, also that of koi-cha is different from 
usti-cha. The whole ceremony is too complicated to attempt 
describing it in full, but the koi-cha-kwai at which sake and 
dinner are served may be briefly sketched. 

KOI-CHA PARTY. 

When one is to give a koi-cha-kwai or party, the host 
sends out the invitations with the names of all the invited 
guests, the name of the principal guest being written at 
the head of the list. This is sent out by a messenger who 
goes from house to house. The invited guests then meet 
at the house of the principal guest (in all about five) and 
talk about the dresses they ought to wear at the party, or 
consult about the place to wait. Then each guest goes to 
the host and expresses thanks for the kind invitation. This 
is called "the previous call for thanks." 

On the appointed day all the guests go promptly 
to the house and wait, sitting on benches at the waiting 
place. When all have arrived they give a signal to the host. 
He hearing it, after having swept the tea house, comes out 
and greets the guests, the latter saluting him and each 
other wash their hands and clean their mouths, then slip 
into the tea room through the narrow entrance, look at the 
hanging picture and the kettle on the ro, or on the portable 
furnace with critical admiration, and then arrange them- 
selves on the mats. 

133 



The host, waiting till all the guests are seated, enters, 
makes another salutation, looks at the charcoal to see if it is 
all right, again makes a bow, and telling them that the dinner 
will soon be served retires, closing the entrance door to the 
kitchen. After a few mmutes the host brings in the " dai'' or 
small low tables for each guest, with several dishes upon 
them, and asking them to begin to eat, again goes out. 

The guests, bowing to each other, begin to eat. The 
host makes his appearance again, and requesting them to eat 
and drink freely, again disappears. Leaving them alone for 
some time he returns and drinks sake with each guest. 

It is the rule that everything that is offered should be 
eaten, but in case one cannot possibly eat all the remnants 
must be taken home in a bag brought for the purpose. The 
host on his part takes care to provide such dishes and in such 
portions that the guests may eat all that is placed before 
them. 

The manner of taking the food from the host, or placing 
it on the floor, etc., must be according to the established rules 
of etiquette. When the dinner is over the host brings on 
some sweets for each person to take home, and telling them 
to take a short recess again disappears. As for the guests 
they put the sweets in their pockets and retire to the waiting 
place. 

The host, finding the room vacated, sweeps it, changes 
the ornaments, and invites the guests once more to the same 
room by striking upon a musical gong. After they are all 
seated the host again opens the kitchen entrance and making 
a bow brings in fire-sticks, feather brush, etc., feeds the char- 
coal and prepares for making tea. Meanwhile the guests 
praise the beauty of the fireplace, ashes and the manner of 
putting on the charcoal. 

The host then places all the necessary tea sets in front of 
him, folds up the bags, creases the napkin through his hand 
in a peculiar manner and wipes the cups, puts a few spoon- 
fuls of powdered tea in it, pours on a dipper half full of hot 
water, twice stirs it with a bamboo stirrer, which is then laid 
on the mats; the host then places him.self opposite the prin- 
cipal guest. The latter then moves forward one step on his 
knee to receive the cup from the host, returns to his seat, and 

134 



bowing to his neighbors drinks one sip and praises the excel- 
lent taste of the tea. At this moment the host returns to his 
former seat. 

Each guest drinks three sips and passes the cup to the 
next person and so on. The last one finishing the tea brings 
the cup back to the principal guest, who returns it to the 
host with low bows. After a few moments the guests all bow 
together. 

The host promises the guests to make usu-cha for them a 
little later. The guests acknowledge their pleasure by bows. 
The host then begins to put away the tea utensils. This 
is the time for the guests to express a desire to examine the 
teaspoon, the tea jar and bags. The host first takes the 
" natsume''' (tea-jar) in his right hand, puts it on the left palm 
with the right hand, creases the napkin and wipes it and 
places them all in a row before the guests. 

Then the guests take them up, one by one, and make in- 
quiries as to the age and the places from whence they came, 
and admire and praise them. Besides these they have many 
other things to see and admire, but this must all be done ac- 
cording to established rules. Great care is taken in 
handling these things on both sides. This is to show respect 
to each other and to endeavor not to make any mistakes in 
etiquette. The Cha-no-yu ceremony is short, symbolizes tran- 
quility, politeness and conscientiousness. 

When koi-cha is over, the host serves usu-cha for each 
guest. Both parties now lay aside all ceremonies and rules 
and are allowed to speak familiarly with each other. In koi- 
cho-kwai the host has to do everything without the help of 
servants or waiters, although he may be a very rich and noble 
person. The guests therefore know that the host may be 
very tired, and as soon as the ceremony is over it is well for 
them to leave. On the day following the guests have to call 
upon the host and express their thanks for the kind treatment 
of the previous day. We have thus gone through the whole 
ceremony of the koi-cha kwai. 

GAMES. 

There are several games that go with the tea ceremon}'-, 
such as several persons arranging some iiowers in a vase in 

135 



turn according to their own taste, they then compare, criticise 
or praise. This is called ^'^ Mawaribana.'''' 

Chakabuki is another game. The host makes several cups 
of different kinds of tea, and the guests have to guess the 
names. This is somewhat similar to that of incense guessing. 
These and many other game are played by ladies at the 
tea parties. 

Burning Incense. 

The object of burning incense is to criticise the odor 
of different incenses, and to guess their names by inhaling 
their odors. So it partakes more of the nature of a game than 
a pure accomplishment, but as it was practiced anciently in 
our country, it must be included as one of the accomplish- 
ments of ladies. 

THE CHANGES AND PROGRESS OF INCENSE. 

The perfume of good incense gives pleasure to the sense 
of smell, just as beautiful colors please the eye and pleasant 
sounds the ear. It is therefore quite natural that we should 
love pleasant odors, as from the beginning of man's existence 
fragrant flowers or anything that has a sweet smell, has been 
found agreeable. 

The use of perfumes as a means of pleasing the sense of 
smQll probablj^ begun later than the arts of music or painting. 
Incense burning was first practiced when Buddhism was 
brought into our country. Incense is always burned When 
Buddha is worshiped, and at the same time different kinds 
of music also came from India and China. As the people of 
Japan liked this incense they began to burn it to scent the 
dress or hair, or to fill the room with a pleasant odor. Per- 
fumes that come from Europe or America are generally in 
liquid form, but ours are solid and must be burned in order 
to emit any odor. 

Incense is not made of one simple material, but has many 
ingredients, so the quality of the incense depends upon the 
manner of mixing these ingredients, and it is difficult to 
always attain success. It is mostly made by ladies and may 
very properly be classed among the fine arts and compared to 
the harmony produced by musical sounds and by the blending 
of colors. 

136 



Games have been invented in which different incenses 
are burned so they may be compared and criticised. For 
instance, several persons take the same ingredients and mix 
them in different proportions, as they think best, thus making 
great varieties of incense. These are burned, one by one, by a 
competent judge and carefully criticised. In very ancient 
times this game was much enjoyed, but at present, game of 
smelling and thus guessing the names of the incense is the 
only one played. The most common of these games are 
Jusshuko, Genji-ko, Ogitsa-ko, Kodori-ko, etc. 

AN INCENSE PARTY. 

This is a most refined entertainment, and suitable for 
ladies with which to occupy their leisure hours; there are 
many among the higher classes who are well acquainted with 
this game. It is a very expensive entertainment, and the 
difficulties in learning it have greatly retarded the develop- 
ment of the art. 

When a lady is invited to an incense party she must stop 
smoking, drinking tea or eating sweets for at least twenty- 
four hours in advance of accepting the invitation. She must 
also be careful not to use pomatum, perfume or oil. Any- 
thing that has an odor must be avoided lest it should prevent 
the incense from giving out a pure scent. When a guest 
enters the room where the burning is going on, great care 
must be taken to open and shut the door quietly, and every 
movement must be very gentle. In case one is obliged to 
stand or leave the room, care must be taken not to disturb the 
air for fear of banishing the fragrance. 

The host now burns the different kinds of incense in a 
burner, and places it before the guests. The latter in turn 
smell it, and whichever name they think is right put the 
name cards into a box arranged for the purpose. When all 
have finished the box is opened and the cards are counted 
The one who has the greatest number of names right wins the 
game, of course the others all lose. At the time of putting 
the cards into the box all speaking is forbidden. It is also 
the rule that no one must smell more than three to five times 
of an}^ one kind of incense. 

137 



The most common game is Jusshu-ko (ten different 
incenses), of which we will give a short account. Jusshu-ko 
consists of four different incenses made into ten little parcels. 

Three parcels of No. i; three parcels of No. 2; three 
parcels of No. 3; one parcel of the incense named " guest," 
in all making ten parcels. An extra parcel of No. i, No. 2 
and No. 3 is burned first, and the guests smell them as 
samples of the others. This is called the "Trial Incense. '' 
The parcel named " guest " is not tried. Then the host puts 
all the parcels together and takes one of them and burns it. 
The guests in turn take up the incense-burner and smell it, 
and comparing the odor with those smelt as trial, put in the 
box the name card of any number they may decide upon. 
But if one thinks it is not the smell of any incense smelt for 
the trial, then the card of the " guest " may be put into the 
box. When all the incense has been burned, the box is 
opened and the following record may be found: In the 
record — "Young pine," "Red plum," etc., are the cards the 
players have received to represent their names. 

The record oi Jttsshu-ko. 

THE NAMES OF INCENSE. 

No. I. Tamatsinni. 

No. 2. Shibafune. 

No. 3. Mumei. 

U. Nobort uma (U is the "guest.") 

INCENSE BURNED. 

III. I. u. II. I. III. II. I. III. II. 

Young Pine, - I. III. I. II. u. I. II. II. III. III. 3 guessed. 

Red Plum, - III. I. II. II. I. u. III. II. I. III. 4 guessed. 

Chrysanthemum, - u. I. II. II. III. I. III. II. III. I. 3 guessed. 

Narcissus, - I. III. I. III. II. II. I. III. u. II. i guessed. 

Bamboo, - III. I. u. III. I. II. II. I. III. II. 8 guessed. 
Name of place, Date. 

By this record we can see that the first incense burned 
was Mumei No. 3, and "Young Pine," "Chrysanthemum" 
and " Narcissus " got it wrong, while two others guessed it 
correctly. The second incense was Tamatsumi^o. i, "Red 

138 



Plum," '^ Chrysanthemum" and "Bamboo" guessed it cor- 
rectly. The third incense was the guest "U, " and " Bamboo " 
only guessed it right. 

The result was that " Bamboo " was found to be the most 
skilled, and out of ten only two were wrong. On the other 
hand, "Narcissus," out of ten, guessed only one right. 

The underlined numbers show the kind of incense guessed. 

ARTICLES NEEDED FOR BURNING INCENSE. 

A great variety of articles are needed for burning incense, 
such as an incense-burner, incense-box, silver-leaf fire-sticks, 
incense-sticks, incense-spoon, card box, etc. 

An incense-burner is made either of porcelain, or copper, 
or iron. 

An incense-box is generally of lacquer and of various 
shapes. One style is a trebled or three-storied box. The 
upper box is for holding the incense, the middle one is to hold 
aloes wood or agallochum, and the lower one is to put the 
cinders or ashes into. 

The silver leaf is a small piece of mica upon which the 
incense is placed, and put over the fire in a burner. 

The card box is to put the name or number cards in, when 
the game is played. 

The cards are little lacquered wooden blocks with pictures 
of plum, bamboo, pine, chrysanthemum, etc., on one side, 
and a number on the other. In each set are ten cards: three 
of No. I, three of No. 2, and three of No. 3, and one of 
" II " or the "guest." In playing jussu-ko each person takes 
one set or ten cards of the same picture. The picture repre- 
sents the name of the owner, and the number on the other side 
represents the number the player notes in the game. 

THE METHODS OF MANUFACTURING INCENSE. 

Incense is made of different ingredients mixed together 
in various proportions, thus a variety of perfumes can be 
made out of the same ingredients. For example Yamaji-no- 
isuyu (the dew on the mountain path) is composed of aloes 
wood four parts, clover four parts, musk o. i, koko four parts. 

Kokon (evening twilight) is composed of aloes wood 1.6 
parts, sandal wood one part, kakko one part and koko two 
parts. 

139 



In making these incenses the ingredients must be pow- 
dered, mixed together, then pounded, and kneaded with white 
honey. 

Floral Arrangement. 

Among the many beautiful things of this world, nothing 
is so enjoyable and prett)'^ as flowers, and whoever has a 
heart must find pleasure in them. In decorating or ornament- 
ing a room nothing can be more appropriate. 

The chief purpose in arranging flowers is to use them for 
ornaments, for this reason the accomplishment is naturally 
learned by women whose duty it is to decorate the house and 
make it attractive. 

, DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF FLORAL ARRANGEMENT. 

As this accomplishment became more and more fashion- 
able, many different systems sprang up among which were 
those of '■'■ Ensiii'''' and '■' Sekishiii.'''' These systems consist of 
much twisting and bending to give more grace to the leaves 
and branches. On the other hand "AVr///" only consists in 
cutting away superabundant branches or leaves. Each has a 
beauty peculiar to itself, and although there are many styles 
only differing slightly from each other, all are equally beauti- 
ful and all have the same end in view, namely, " That the 
arrangement of the flowers should represent the mind of the 
arranger." • 

The idea is, that if the mind is influenced by anger, 
hatred or any other violent passion, flowers can never be suc- 
cessfully or gracefully arranged, but if the mind be tranquil, 
or only filled with kindness and love, then will the flowers 
be satisfactorily arranged. Another essential principle is to 
improve upon nature and this can only be accomplished by 
a careful study of the beauties of nature. In all the systems 
pupils are taught to always keep their minds tranquil and 
happy in order to produce correct designs. 

ARTICLES NEEDED IN FLORAL ARRANGEMENTS. 

Although the articles needed for arranging flowers are 
not the same in different styles, yet they all consist of a little 
saw, a knife, a pair of scissors and different kinds of vases or 
flower pots. 



For a vase, porcelain is considered the best; next copper, 
then iron. The latter is seldom used as it is liable to rust. 
Some few vases are made of bamboo or wood. Names are 
given to them according to their shape and position, such as the 
"hooked vase," the suspended vase, the single-branched vase, 
etc. Sometimes vases are in pairs or in double pairs. In the 
latter case one pair is called the "principal pair," while the 
other is called the "secondary pair." It is the rule to arrange 
tree branches in blossom in the principal pairs and flowers in 
the secondary pairs. 

METHODS OF ARRANGING FLOWERS. 

Two blossoming tree branches are taken; the one called 
''S/im" (center or principal) is made to stand in a vertical 
line: the other, called "Tome" (support or tertiary), is made to 
lie almost in a horizontal line with the water. Between these 
two another branch is added and is called "N a gas hi" 
(streamer or secondary). These three branches complete one 
decoration. Two more branches may, however, be added, 
making five branches; the one added between the center and 
the streamer is called the "shoulder;" the other between the 
support and streamer is called the "body." 

The seven-branch design is made by adding two branches 
to the above mentioned ones, to assist the center and the 
streamer. This design is used for very ceremonial occasions. 

The nine-branch design is made by adding two more 
branches to the last; one is auxiliary to the " body " and the 
other to the "support" and are generally placed behind them. 

The peculiarity of this art is the changes and variations 
that can be made in this nine-branch design as a foundation 
by adding as many as fifteen or more branches, or by lessen- 
ing them. 

By this arrangement the different aspects of the four seasons, 
the wonders of natural phenomena, the appearance of youth, 
age, prosperity or adversity are represented. Indeed there is 
no limit to the alterations and interest it affords. The appear- 
ance of flowers differ according to the seasons. Spring flowers 
represent new life and development, therefore they should be 
arranged when in full bloom. Summer flowers represent a 
more flourishing condition and should be arranged in great 

141 



abundance. The flowers of autumn indicate a less vigorous 
growth and should be arranged with less profusion. Winter 
flowers indicate a period of rest, or the death of the year, and 
should be arranged with very few blossoms. The size and the 
number of flowers to be arranged depend upon the shape and 
size of the vase. If the opening of the vase be one foot square 
the height of the flowers, as a rule, should be one foot and a 
half high, that is, one whole length and a half of the vase. 
Some variations, however, may be allowed. 

Trying to make flowers look more beautiful by putting 
too many branches into a little vase reminds one of a peacock 
spreading his tail feathers in pride, and is a vain and ludicrous 
attempt. 

The following faults are to be avoided: a branch pro- 
jecting from out or under an auxiliary branch; branches 
crossing each other; branches in parallel lines, or having the 
same height, as if they were vieing with each other; openings 
seen among the branches, etc. 

The best time to cut flowers is early in the morning, while 
the dew is still upon them, and half-opened ones should be 
chosen, if not, the color and the fragrance will the sooner fade. 
In a style called " JVagekomi,'" that is, putting branches in a vase 
in the simplest manner, it is bad taste to put in too many, 
especially so if the mouth of the vase be small. It appears 
more tasteful %o select slender branches. The vase should be 
filled with pure rain water, if obtainable, the next best is 
spring water, and after that well water. 

The following are the principal flowers used in floral 
arrangements: 

SPRING FLOWERS. 

Plum blossoms. Azaleas. 

Cherry blossoms. Peonies. 

Sumomo (a kind of plum). Forsythia suspensa. 

Peach branches. Fuku-iu-so. 

Pear blossoms. Hamanasu (a kind of rose). 

Almond branches. Garden marigold. 

Willow. Poppy. 

Wisteria. Calenthe discolor— Lindl. 

Chinese flowering apple. Orithia edulis— Mig. 

■'^'^^^^- Sanzashi (a kind of hawthorn). 

Corchorus. 

142 



SUMMER 

Tachibana (a kind of citrus). 

Common Indian shot. 

Lotus. 

Iris. 

Pink. 

Shakuyaku (a kind of peony). 

Cape jessamine. 

Day lily. 

Summer chrysanthemum. 

Pomegranates. 

Lillies. 

Great flowering clematis. 

AUTUMN 

Orchis. 

Chrysanthemum. 
Hagi (a kind of bush clover). 
Eularia japonica, trin. 
Authistiria argusus. 
Shion (a kind of aster). 
Platycodon grandiflorum — D. 
C. (a kind of gentian.) 



FLOWERS. 

Satsuki (a kind of azalea). 
Shakunagi (a kind of rose 

bay). 
Kakitsubata (a kind of iris). 
Hydrangia. 

Crape-m3^rtle from India. 
Garden balsam from India. 
Morning" glory. 
Podocarpus Nageia-R-Br. 
Blackberry lily from India. 
Shaga (a kind of Iris). 
Deutzia Sieboldiana, Maxim. 

FLOWERS. 

Mokusai, oleafragrans thrmb. 

Fuyoo, a kind of rose-mallow. 

Omi-naeshi. 

Oshiroi (a kind of four- 
o'clock). 

Shin kaido (a kind of ele- 
phant's ear). 

Kwan on so, etc., etc. 



WINTER FLOWERS. 



Willows. 

Camellia. 

Winter chrysanthemum. 

Yatsude. 

Narcissus. 



Robai (Japanese Allspice). 
Winter peony. 

Sazankwa (a kind of Japanese 
camellia). 



Although thus classified, there are some plants that can 
be used through all the seasons, as the pine, bamboo and 
other kinds of evergreen shrubs and trees. Though they 
bear no flowers, their freshness, strength and their pecuhar 
beauty which surpasses even the flowers, cause them to be 
used all the year round. 

A FLORAL PARTY. 

A floral party is given by teachers to enable their pupils 
to arrange the flowers they have already studied and to per- 



143 



mit the teachers to criticise them. These are also exhibited 

to the pubhc and is a means of encouragement to greater 

skill. 

Painting. 

Japanese painting having been much noticed by other 
nations, many books have been written describing its changes 
progress and its different styles; therefore we will only men- 
tion that from ancient times painting was regarded, as one of 
the most suitable accomplishments for women of the higher 
class. Indeed it stands first among the fine arts, and its use 
and application are very extensive. Very few women have, 
however, devoted themselves to this art as a profession; most 
of them have only taken their leisure time to paint, and that 
only for amusement. Thus we seldom find any who rivaled 
the professional artists. There were, however, some among 
the gentler sex who excelled in this art. During the ninth 
century names of court ladies who were famous for painting 
were often heard. Empresses and Princesses were also known 
to have painted very exquisitely. The impresses Sofne dono- 
no-Kisaki Kwanshi-Goreizen, and Takeko, daughter of Ono-no- 
Miya Sanesuke-ko ; the wives of the Lords Nagaiye-kio, Iye?iaga- 
kio; Eshikibu, etc., were the most noted for their paintings ^ 
from the ninth to the eleventh century. 

In the " Genji-mono gatari,'' dL novel or narrative of the 
court, compleffed in the beginning of the eleventh century, 
also in other writings that describe the condition of those days, 
we read that this art was one of the accomplishments of the 
ladies. 

The following is a short extract from the history of the 
" Genji " and " Heike" families called " Genpei set suikt,^^ in 
which mention is made of Kiyomori^s daughters who excelled 
in this art. It will give a good idea of the condition of ladies 
and what they learned in those days: 

'■'■ Kiyornori had eight daughters; one was married to 
Kanemasa-ko, an Imperial court officer. She was not only 
beautiful and benevolent, but was an unrivaled artist. She 
was commanded to paint on the sliding paper doors of the 
Imperial palace an illustration of the narrative called ' Iseino- 
nogatarii ' (a phoenix in a bamboo forest), and it was said to 
have been exquisitely done. 

144 



"The second daughter became the Empress. The third 
was married to the Governor Motozane-ko. She was noted 
for her great skill in playing upon the Biwa, a musical 
instrument. 

"The fourth was espoused to a high lord Takefusa. She 
was a very sympathetic lady, and was very accomplished in 
playing on the koto. 

"The fifth became the wife of Konoe-Moto-Mitsu-Ko. Her 
beautiful complexion was compared to a crystal covered by a 
thin veil. Her father gave her the name of ' Soto-rihime ' 
(the Princess of Transparency). She was a celebrated poetess. 

"The sixth was married to Lord Nobutaka. Her glossy 
hair and rosy cheeks were more beautiful than the jewels she 
wore, and brighter than the light of the moon, and her pres- 
ence spread lustre all around. She was famous for her paint- 
ing and poetry and also excelled in the art of making poetry 
in company; was clever at making ornamental cards, and had 
a tender and generous heart. She was devoted to Buddhism 
and entered the temple to serve Buddha, making offerings, 
burning incense and reading prayers all day long. 

"The seventh daughter had no particular accomplish- 
ments, but she was a paragon of beauty. 

"The eighth was married to the Lord Arifusa. She 
painted well, tied ornamental cords cleverly, and her hand- 
writing was very skillful. She was a good composer of poetry 
as well as prose, though these latter accomplishments were 
rarely possessed by women. She painted illustrations of a 
hundred poems on the sliding paper doors. She also did the 
writing of the poems herself to the great admiration of the 
Emperor for her rare talent." 

It seems to us that in this record these ladies were too 
much praised, but by this we can see what accomplishments 
were learned by ladies in ancient times. 

During the thirteenth century Sohekimoii-in, Kiinaikio, 
Ukiodaiii, etc., were Coiirt ladies noted for painting. 

'' Niwa-no-Oshie'' (mentioned in the preface and also in 
the ''Women in Literature") was compiled in the last part 
of the thirteenth century by Abiitsiiiii, and was dedicated to 
her daughter to assist her in her education. In it the 
authoress says: "Although painting may not be an indispen- 

145 



sable accomplishment, still, it is well you should learn it to be 
able to paint beautiful portraits, or to illustrate narratives 
and other things in your leisure hours." 

Such was the general impression in regard to women 
studying painting. After the time of the Ashikaga govern- 
ment, the Imperial power was very much decreased, and the 
consequence was that but little was heard jof accomplished 
women in the Court. 

The Shogun Ashikaga, however, gave great encourage- 
ment to the fine arts, and this was the time when a great 
many famous artists appeared; and among them were some 
women who gained the highest name in this art. 

Chiyo-jo, the daughter of Tosa Mitsunobu, an artist of 
great celebrity, became the wife of Motonobu, who was the 
ancestor of the Kano family of artists, and she gained great 
fame as an artist. 

When the Tokugawa family came into power, literature, 
which had fallen into a low state, greatly improved, and literary 
women and female artists again made their appearance. 

Yukinobu, a lady relative of the famous Tannyie., was a 
most talented artist. 

Painting is in a flourishing condition at the present 
day. It is taught in the primary as well as in the higher 
schools for girls; there are also many lady students who go to 
private studio^to study with famous artists. 

A fine arts society called " Nippon Bijiitsu-kio-kwai,'" was 
recently organized. The members consist of noted artists. 
The object of this organization is to encourage the fine arts. 
Public exhibitions are also given of members' paintings at 
stated times. A chosen committee criticise their work, and 
medals, certificates or prizes are awarded to the most skillful 
artists. 

They sometimes borrow from different persons the 
choicest paintings of ancient as well as present times, and 
arrange loan exhibitions so the students may benefit by them. 
These exhibitions have been honored by frequent visits from 
Their Imperial Majesties, the Emperor and the Empress. 
When they recognize a work of true merit they often 
become its purchaser, and the painting is sent to the 
palace. 



Above all other favors conferred by Their Imperial 
Majesties upon the artists, the most gracious one is to ask one 
or more of them to use his or her brush while in the Imperial 
presence. A few years ago at one of Her Imperial Majesty's 
visits at the exhibition, the following ladies painted before 
Her Majesty the Empress: 

Koai Takemura, Kakei Atomi, 

Shohin Noguchi, Hokoku Takabayashi, 

Giokushi Atomi, Seisui Okuzawa, 

Seikoku Sakuma, Masu Tanaka. 

Her Majesty, our beloved Empress, is most clever and 
intelligent, well learned in literature and poetry. Moreover 
she takes great interest in painting. She is known to take 
her brush in hand and to paint beautifully. She gives great 
encouragement by her visits to the exhibitions, and also does 
much for the improvement of the art, and there is every pros- 
pect of painting being largely developed during the present 
reign of Their Imperial Majesties. 

APPLICATION OF THE ART OF PAINTING. 

The art of painting is applied to a variety of uses, viz., 
porcelain, lacquer, gold lacquer work, inlaid work, sculpture, 
designs for weaving, dyeing, embroidery, raised silk work and 
other ornamentations of various kinds. 

As weaving, embroidery, raised silk work, etc., are mostly 
done by women, they learn painting to prepare themselves for 
these occupations. 

For particulars in regard to the work or industries of 
women, the reader is referred to the chapters upon "Women's 
Industries." 



147 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PRESENT OR MEIJI PERIOD, CHARITIES 
AND EDUCATION. 



The older women were what they were in consequence 
of "The Three Obediences," the rule of Confucius referred 
to at some length in the introductory chapter. All the laws 
and customs that had anything to do with the relation of 
women to men, and to other women, were based upon this 
rule. No wonder, therefore, if it was considered the height 
of womanly virtue to be absolutely obedient. 

The activity of women was limited to the domestic circle. 
They were of no importance outside of their families. They 
had nothing to say or to do with the. public lives of their hus- 
bands. It was derogatory to their character to mingle m 
any public affairs, be it ever so little. 

But this state of indifference outside of the domestic circle 
is now gone, let us hope never to return. The tide of West- 
ern civilization has reached our shores. Philosophical edu- 
cators have declared the advisability of raising the social status 
of our women. To this idea a few of the more brave and 
enlightened have responded by calling upon their sisters to 
extend their interests beyond the home circle and make them- 
selves recognized as real members of society and not merely 
of families. 

The result is there are already not a few women who are 
earning independent livelihoods, not because they are pressed 
by poverty, but simply to practically prove how well their sex 
can do in professional life. What is of still more conse- 
quence, if not of more benefit to society at large, there has 
come out from her secluded home many a woman who is now 
taking an important part in educational and philanthropic 
affairs. 

149 



Women in Public Affairs in the fleiji Period. 

The tendency of women towards an enlargement of 
their sphere of action briefly alluded to above, has given rise 
to a number of educational and charitable institutions under 
their management. Some of the more important are the 
Fujin-Kyoiku Kwai (Women's Educational Society), the Fujin 
Jizen Kwai (Women's Charity Bazaar Association), the Tokvo 
Jikei Byoin (Tokyo Charity Hospital) and the Tokyo Ikuji- 
in (Tokyo Orphanage). 

In all these Her Imperial Majesty, our wise and most 
gracious Empress, takes the lead. There has not been a 
notable stand taken by women that has been for the public 
benefit but that the Empress in the kindness of her heart has 
not either directly or indirectly given it her patronage. 

When the Kagoshima war broke out in 1877, she 'sent an 
immense quantity of lint pledgets of her own preparation for 
the use of the wounded soldiers. She every year practices 
silk culture in her palace in order to share in the labors of her 
poor people. Whenever the charity bazaar is held, she visits 
it and makes large purchases. The cause of education is not 
less dear to her heart, and she often visits the schools for 
girls, the Peeresses School, the Girls' Normal School, the Girls' 
High School, and even others of less note, not to merely pre- 
sent herself before them, but to make a close examination 
which might only be expected of a school inspector. She 
also visits the Tokyo Charity Hospital, and speaks a kind word 
to the patients and presents them with gifts. Such an illus- 
trious example can but be followed by the ladies of the upper 
classes, and does much to enlarge the sphere of the usefulness 
and activity of women. The establishment of various educa- 
tional and benevolent institutions, and the publishing of var- 
ious magazines by women, have done not a little towards deter- 
mining the direction in which the women of the Meiji period 
are taking rapid steps in progress. 

Shall women interest themselves in political affairs? This 
is a question yet unanswered in every quarter of the globe. 
As for Japan, her customs and her circumstances direct us to 
answer it in the negative. Household cares and such public 
affairs as appertain to the minor charities and female educa- 
tion, are well suited to the feminine nature, while unbecoming 

150 



to the stronger sex. It is therefore our opinion, and that of 
most of our sisters, that pubhc affairs, except those mentioned 
above, should not be engaged in by women, especially in all 
affairs pertaining to politics. 

We do not hesitate to own that our women are not yet far 
advanced in public usefulness, but it is not a little consolatory 
to say that they have lately been placed in the right path of 
progress through the sterling efforts of some noble and learned 
women under the great leadership of Her Imperial Majesty, 
the Empress. 

CHARITIES. 

In woman's sphere of public activity, charities and the 
correction of such social evils as the law or religion has 
little or no control over seem the most womanly. Japan 
is to be much congratulated that her women have come to 
a knowledge of this duty and are taking steps to make 
themselves instrumental in doing good to their country. They 
have established in various parts of the Empire health and 
temperance societies, association's for the improvement of 
social manners and customs, and also for the abolition of 
licensed prostitution. They have also done much to purify 
the stage and street manners by inducing scholars and com- 
posers to make good plays and songs. They have not yet 
reaped much benefit from the various associations, but have 
very bright prospects before them. 

The public charity in which Japanese women have thus 
far shown the greatest interest is the relief of the indigent. 
Hospitals for needy patients have been established and asy- 
lums for orphans and other poor children, all of which have 
gained the warmest sympathy of the public. It is reasonably 
expected that similar institutions will be established in many 
of the provincial towns at no distant future. 

We have now many benevolent institutions founded and 
managed by ladies' associations and individual women. A 
few of them will be enumerated. 

I. THE TOKYO CHARITY HOSPITAL. 

The Tokyo Charity Hospital was established in 1887. 
It was and is under the direction of Her Majesty, the Em- 

151 



press and a ladies' association called the " Tokyo Charity 
Hospital Association." It is managed directly by a staff of 
functionaries, consisting of a president, ten directresses, four- 
teen consulting doctors, a chief doctor, an assistant chief 
doctor, and a number of ordinary doctors and secretaries and 
clerks. The directresses, who are all ladies of high rank, are 
selected from among the supporters of the institution by the 
Empress herself, and the other principal functionaries are 
nominated by the association under the direction of Her Maj- 
esty, the Empress. The present chief doctor, his assistant 
chief doctors and consulting doctors, are all celebrities of the 
profession. 

The hospital was first started by a number of ladies who 
formed themselves into an association called "The Benevolent 
Society " (Jizen Kwai), from whom the management of the 
hospital was soon severed, and it was then placed under the 
patronage of Her Majesty, the Empress. 

Soon after its opening the institution, too true to its 
nature, becoming cramped for means to carry on its work, 
obtained relief and encouragement from Their Imperial 
Majesties, the Emperor and the Empress and the Empress 
Dowager. 

The former gave a magnificent donation of 20,000 yen, 
and the others an annuity of 600 yen. Following these 
illustrious examples, the members of the association did all 
in their power only too gladly. They held a grand council 
and resolved to call for public aid to increase the permanent 
fund of the hospital, also to invite each member to contri- 
bute from one to five yen per month towards ordinary ex- 
penses, and to hold a charity bazaar each October, one-half 
of the profits secured on the occasion to be devoted to aug- 
ment the said fund, and the other half to be given to other 
charitable institutions. 

The fund of the hospital is now estimated at 17,000 
yen. This is kept as a reserved fund. The monthly ex- 
penditures which vary from six to seven hundred yen, are 
defrayed by contributions from the members of the 
association. 

Mors than a thousand years ago the Empress Komyo 
founded a similar hospital on a much smaller scale. 

152 



II. THE BENEVOLENT DEPARTMENT OF THE FUKUDEN SOCIETY. 

This society was founded upon Buddhist doctrines of 
benevolence in 1779 by a number of devout w^omen, repre- 
sented by such persons as the Princess Mori, Marchioness 
Tokugavi^a, Viscountesses Forio and Miura, Baroness Kagi- 
tori and several other ladies of no less celebrity. The 
Fukuden (happy field) Society is still a well-known Buddhist 
association established for charitable purposes. The special 
object of the society is the support and management of its 
orphanage at No. 103 Azabu, Kogai-cho, Tokyo. In i8gi the 
ladies of this society did much for the relief of distressed 
children whose parents had been killed in the great Gifu- 
Aichi earthquake. 

The children in the orphanage are all taught in the 
elements of a common school education, and when they reach 
12 years of age are taught some kind of useful industry. At 
15 years they are put in some suitable position to become 
nurses, midwives, weavers, etc. 

III. CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. 

There are quite a number of Christian women's societies, 
as scarcely a church in the whole country, but has some kind 
of benevolent society attached to it. Perhaps the best organ- 
ized and regulated among them is the Fujin Kyofu Kwai, es- 
tablished in 1886 by Mrs. Kaji-ko Yajima, of the Sakurai 
girls' school, and over thirty other ladies. The origin of this 
society was the visit of Mrs. Mary C. Leavitt of the Women's 
Temperance Society of America, to this country. She came 
here in June, 1882, and gave many lectures, both in Yokohama 
and Tokyo, upon the subject of temperance. Mrs. Yajima 
listened to the American lady and was greatly moved. She 
then directed all her energies, in conjunction with thirty-eight 
other ladies, towards establishing a sister association to the 
American society, whose messenger had so strongly influenced 
her. Mrs. Yajima's exertions were at last crowned with suc- 
cess, the formal opening of the society taking place on the 
6th December, 1888. Its members are over five hundred at 
the present writing. Its aims are: 

First. To improve public morality. 

153 



Second. To correct or eradicate all sorts of social evils, 
especially drinking and smoking. 

Third. To relieve the distressed. 

Fourth. To change manners and customs for the better. 

Fifth. To improve sanitary conditions. 

Sixth. To put moral education on a better basis. 

Seventh. To increase the real happiness of human life. 

Each member of the society is pledged to live a pure life 
herself, and to direct her energies towards the attainment of 
one or more of the above mentioned objects. The annual 
income, consisting of fees and donations from the members, 
amounts to about four hundred yen. The charitable works 
hitherto accomplished bj^ the society are many, of which the 
following are the best known: 

First. When large portions of Wakayama, Okayama and 
Fukuoka prefectures suffered from inundations in i88g, the 
society sent a large quantity of old clothing and a sum of 250 
yen to such of the sufferers as needed help. It is to be ob- 
served that a portion of the amount was raised by means of a 
concert. 

Second. At the time of the great earthquake of 1891, a 
number of nurses were sent to the shaken districts with in- 
structions to give their services to the injured for six weeks. 
They also opened their purses and wardrobes to relieve the 
distressed. 

EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
1868-70. 

As early as the first year of the restoration, the govern- 
ment saw objections in restricting the education of women to 
such branches of learning as were only needed in the manage- 
ment of domestic affairs, and in the new educational code 
which was soon promulgated included an educational system 
for girls, and sent some promising ones abroad to be edu- 
cated and thus secure some able leaders in the new school 
system when they returned. The people also of our land 
fully acknowledged the importance of a more expanded and 
enlightened education for girls than that formerly in vogue. 
The result of all this thought and preparation has been quite 
satisfactory, when we make due allowance for the shortness 
of time the new system has been in working order. 

154 



iSyo-go. 

The number of female teachers now employed in edu- 
cational institutions is about five thousand, and the girls at- 
tending school number nearlj' a million. The graduates of 
the various schools from 1881-1889, inclusive, are estimated at 
354,392. This number is b}^ no means large compared with 
our population of over forty million, but when we consider 
that all these girls have been educated to appear on the 
social stage, each in her appropriate character, we may rest 
assured that they will be of great benefit to the future of 
Japan. 

Of late the study of medicine and nursing has become 
quite a popular profession for women and there are al- 
ready a number of lady doctors and nurses who are possessed 
of scientific knowledge. Until a few years ago nearly all the 
higher schools for girls were public institutions, but more re- 
cently there has sprung up many private ones, proving that 
education for women is making rapid progress. 

Kindergarten schools are on the increase in all parts of 
the empire. 

I. THE PEERESSES SCHOOL. 

This school for the daughters of noblemen was formerly 
a department of the Gakushiu-in, now a school for the sons 
of peers. In September, 1885, it was disconnected from the 
boys' institution and on the fifth of the following October the 
work of instruction was commenced in its new buildings. 
On the thirteenth of November next, Her Imperial Majesty, 
the Empress, visited and formall}^ opened it, making a long 
speech in regard to its usefulness and the importance of edu- 
cation in general. 

This school was established in accordance with the wishes 
of H. I. M. the Empress, and is under the control of the Im- 
perial Household Department. Its object is to educate the 
daughters of the nobility, physically, intellectually and morally 
so they ma}^ be well fitted to their high stations in life. It 
admits any daughter belonging to a noble family above 6 
and under 18 years of age. It has four different courses of 
study: 

First. A common school course of six years. 

Second. A middle school course of six years. 

155 



Third. A post-graduate course, in which classic Jap- 
anese, one or more modern languages, drawing and music are 
made the objects of special study. 

Fourth. A special course in which such students as have 
outgrown the other courses are instructed in a few essential 
subjects. 

The number of teachers and assistants, including the 
president, is forty-seven, and that of the students 362. 

II. THE HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 

This institution was first founded in July, 1874, under the 
^name of the Tokyo Female Normal School {Tokyo /os hi Shihan 
Gakko') and was given its present name in March, i8go. 

In April, 1876, a preparatory department was attached to 
it, as so few girls were found having enough learning to enter 
upon the regular normal course. In June of the same year a 
kindergarten was started in this school, and two years later a 
common school department was added to give the students in 
the normal course practical training in the work of teaching. 
A department was also added to train students as teachers in 
kindergartens throughout the Empire. This department was 
abolished in 1880, and the study of kindergarten training was 
added to the curriculum of the normal students. At the same 
time classic Japanese, etiquette and domestic industries 
enlarged the sarfle curriculum. In July, 1882, the preparatory 
department was abolished and a higher girls' school depart- 
ment was added. In August, 1885, the several departments 
were amalgamated under the name of Tokyo Normal School 
{Tokyo Shihan Gakko). In March, i8go, it was again made 
independent under the present name, ^'Joshi Koto Shihan 
Gakko:' 

The present purpose of the institution is to give good 
teachers to normal and higher schools for girls, and also to 
kindergartens. The students are selected from among those 
girls who have finished a two years' course in ordinary nor- 
mal schools, and those who have passed an equivalent exami- 
nation. A number of such girls are nominated by the gov- 
ernor of each prefecture, and from among them the directors 
of the normal school select a certain number. The regular 
course runs four years. The number of hours devoted to 

156 



instruction is thirty-one per week. The teachers number 
forty-eight, and the students ninety-seven. 

The expenses of the students are defrayed by the govern- 
ment. The graduates are each bound to perform school 
work for five full years from the day of the reception of the 
diploma, and that teaching must be done at a certain school 
indicated by the Department of Education for the first three 
years. 

Up to March, 1892, the number of graduates have been 
266 in the lower department, and forty-five in the higher de- 
partment. Most of them are already engaged in educational 
work. 

III. THE CORPORATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. . 

This is a private enterprise for teaching girls in such 
industrial arts as are suitable for them, together with the 
essential elements of learning. 

The industries taught are sewing, knitting, embroidery, 
flower making and painting. Lessons are also given in prac- 
tical ethics, reading, writing, arithmetic, domestic industries 
and the elements of science. English is also taught to such 
girls as may desire to learn it. There are two courses of study, 
respectively called the "A" and the "B" course, the former 
of which runs four 57ears and the latter three years. The 
hours of instruction are seven per day. The authorities, in- 
cluding the director, number thirty-two, and the number of 
pupils 344. The present director is Mr. Tegima Sei-ichi, who is 
now in Chicago on official duty at the World's Columbian Ex- 
position. This school was established in September, 1886, and 
has since sent forth 372 graduates. A few noteworthy facts 
connected with the institution may be mentioned: 

First. Its authorities and students contributed both money 
and labor when the great Gifu-Aichi earthquake occurred, and 
sent 321 cotton flannel shirts to the poor sufferers. 

Second. Once every year many ladies and gentlemen 
are invited to inspect the methods of instruction and the 
students' manual productions Avhich are then sold at reason- 
able rates. Last year when the third of such occasions was 
celebrated the visitors numbered 10,000 and the proceeds of 
the sales amounted to 384 j'.?/;. • 

157 



Third. The institution has a money-saving system which 
is to deposit one-half of the profits secured by the sale of 
manufactured articles at the savings office of the Teishinsho 
(Department of Communications). Such savings have now 
grown to the respectable sum of 244 yen. 

Fourth. On the 12th of April, 1889, Her Imperial 
Majesty, the Empress, visited the school, made a minute in- 
spection of the various articles made by the students and had 
sent to her palace such as pleased her. The school also re- 
.ceived a gift of 200 yen from the Imperial hand. 

Fifth. On the 2gth of October, i8gi, and the 14th of Jan- 
uary 1892, His Majesty, the Emperor, sent a chamberlain to the 
school to inquire after its condition and to instruct the 
authorities to send some of the articles manufactured by the 
students to the Imperial palace to be honored by his inspec- 
tion. To the credit and pleasure of the girls, many of the 
articles sent to the palace were never returned to their 
hands. 

There are other public and private schools of much im- 
portance. Of these the most famous is the Atomi school for 
young ladies, established in 1875 by Miss Atomi Kwakei, 
which has already graduated 3,000 girls. Among others of 
note are some founded by Christians of the various 
denominations. 

As may be sfeen by glancing over these pages, education 
for the women of this country is now in a fair way of progress. 
We do not entertain a shadow of doubt as to its producing 
beneficial results. 

The educational philosophers of Japan are now studying 
how to unite the intellectual methods of Western systems 
with the teachings of Oriental morality, which has hitherto 
preserved the feminine virtues, from the days of old down to 
the present time. Whether they will succeed in basing them 
on the history and peculiarities of Japanese custom, has much 
to do with the future of the Empire. 

We here append a table of the present educational insti- 
tutions for female students, according to the latest reports 
(1890-92), published by the Monbusho, or the Educational 
Department of the Imperial Government. 



158 





Numbers of Schools. 


Female 
Students. 


Female 


INSTITUTIONS. 


Gov't. 


Public. 


Private. 


Teachers. 




1890 


1891 


1890 


1891 


1890 


1891 


1890 


1891 


i8go 


1891 


Higher Female Schools 

Female Dep'ts of Ordinary 


1 


I 


7 
28 


7 
27 


23 


21 


3. 115 

885 

412 

5,677 

2,495 

36 

3 


2,768 

838 

615 

5.492 
1,248 


153 

45 

31 

127 
121 

4 


166 

47 
36 


Chinese and Japanese Schools 
(Public) 






Chinese and Japanese Schools 














159 


English Schools (Private) 














no 
































1 


2 


































ID 

3 

23 

276 

40 

1,285 

24 

4.407 

308 

344 
97 
28 
29 

20 






Pharmaceutical Schools (Pri- 














6 

12 

325 

50 

1,381 

13 

5.504 

364 

909 
99 
21 

15 

33 
13 
36 
3 

017. 270 






Commercial Schools (Private). 
Mathematical Schools (/VzV«^?) 






























3 
2 
17 

173 
22 

35 
4 
2 


2 


Bookkeepers' Schools (Private) 




























14 






























218 














38 


28 


Chinese, English and Mathe- 












52 
















Sick Nurses' Schools (Private) 














4 










I 
2 


I 
2 


Kindergarten System Schools 










3 


5 
2 


Technological ^c):\oo\%{Private) 


























Shampooers' Schools (Private). 
































915,238 


3,738 














Public and Private. 


Infants. 


Instructresses. 




i8go 


1891 


1890 


1891 


1890 


1891 


Kindergartens 


1^8 




7.a86 


8,662 


271 


^17 

































159 



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